FasciPedia - User contributions [en]

Test 1

2023-03-22T23:59:30Z

WikiSysop: Added :User:WikiSysop

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"description": "This is a test",
"targets": [
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"title": "User talk:Archangel"
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"title": "User talk:Bacchus"
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User talk:𝗔𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗮𝗻𝗴𝗲𝗹

2023-02-27T22:32:35Z

WikiSysop: Welcome!

'''Welcome to ''FasciPedia''!'''
We hope you will contribute much and well.
You will probably want to read the [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Help:Contents help pages].
Again, welcome and have fun! [[User:WikiSysop|WikiSysop]] ([[User talk:WikiSysop|talk]]) 22:32, 27 February 2023 (UTC)

User:𝗔𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗮𝗻𝗴𝗲𝗹

2023-02-27T22:32:35Z

WikiSysop: Creating user page for new user.

This is a back up acc ount be ause i keep having trouble with my tegular accoyn5This is a back up acc ount be ause i keep having trouble with my tegular accoyn5This is a back up acc ount be ause i keep having trouble with my tegular accoyn5

Contextualism

2023-02-27T11:00:52Z

WikiSysop: Text replacement - " The " to " the "

'''Contextualism''', also known as '''epistemic contextualism''', is a family of views in [[philosophy]] which emphasize the context in which an action, utterance, or expression occurs. Proponents of contextualism argue that, in some important respect, the action, utterance, or expression can only be understood relative to that context. Contextualist views hold that philosophically controversial concepts, such as "meaning P", "knowing that P", "having a [[reason]] to A", and possibly even "being true" or "being right" only have meaning relative to a specified context. OTher philosophers contend that context-dependence leads to complete [[relativism]].

[[Category:Definitions]]
[[Category:Philosophy]]

Chris Hood

2023-02-27T10:57:44Z

WikiSysop: Text replacement - " The " to " the "

{{Stub}}

Christopher Hood is a 23 year old Fascist activist and founder of [[NSC 131|NSC-131]] from Pepperell, MA. Recently, he was put through court and charged with one count of "Affray", or disturbing the peace with physical conflict. This was due to a fight between NSC members peacefully protesting outside of a drag-queen story hour event in Jamaica Plain and 2 counter protestors. Christopher was not present at this protest, and the charges against the counter protesters were dropped the day of him entering court.

Thankfully, the charge of affray carries no jail time.
[[Category:Activists]]

Crew 319

2023-02-27T10:56:07Z

WikiSysop: Text replacement - " The " to " the "

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Telegram:
!https://t.me/Crew_319
|}
'''Crew 319''' is a National Socialist activist group that operates and was found in Iowa on June 30, 2022. the leader, Bauer of 319 takes inspiration from [[George Lincoln Rockwell]]. the purpose of the group is to advocate for white people, to spread the truth, and to promote white power.

== Activities ==
On September 11, 2022, Bauer drove a truck around with a swastika flag on calling it the "U-Haul of hate" as seen on video to spread the message of hate which is the truth.

AnoTher took place on November 26, 2022 where Bauer and a couple of his buddies did a banner drop and were met with a few friendly police officers and one counter protestor who happened to be a radical [[Left-Wing|leftist]] who tried to take Their banners down after being told the [[The holohoax|Holohoax]] did not happen but failed.
On December 2, 2022, Bauer drove around some random neighborhood doing car flier activism (driving in a car and toss bags onto driveways) and managed to get the word out.

British Empire

2023-02-27T10:55:19Z

WikiSysop: Text replacement - " The " to " the "

{{Stub}}[[File:9d3db4252d355077.png|frameless|250px|right|]]
'''The British Empire''' was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and oTher territories ruled or administered by the [[United Kingdom]] and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23 per cent of the world population at the time, and by 1920, it covered 35.5 million km², 24 per cent of the Earth's total land area. As a result, its constitutional, legal, linguistic, and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was described as "The empire on which the sun never sets", as the Sun was always shining on at least one of its territories.<ref>[[#refJackson2013|Jackson]], pp. 5–6.</ref><ref>[[#refTaylor2001|Taylor]], pp. 119,123.</ref><ref>[[#refOHBEv1|Canny]], pp. 63–64.</ref><ref>Blackmar, Frank Wilson (1891). Spanish Institutions of the Southwest Issue 10 of Johns Hopkins University studies in historical and political science. Hopkins Press. p. 335. </ref><ref>Pethick, Derek (1980). The Nootka Connection: Europe and the Northwest Coast 1790–1795. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-88894-279-1</ref>
<ref>Innis, Harold A (2001) [1930]. The Fur Trade in Canada: An Introduction to Canadian Economic History (reprint ed.). Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-8196-4</ref>
<ref>James, p. 152. </ref><ref>James, p. 151</ref><ref>Lloyd, pp. 115–118. </ref><ref>James, p. 165. </ref><ref>"Why was Slavery finally abolished in the British Empire?". the Abolition Project. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016. </ref><ref>Porter, p. 14. </ref><ref>Hinks, p. 129. </ref><ref>"Slavery After 1807". Historic England. Archived from the original on 15 August 2021. Retrieved 24 November2019. As a result of public pressure apprenticeships were abolished early, in 1838. </ref><ref>"Slavery Abolition Act 1833; Section XXIV". pdavis. 28 August 1833. Archived from the original on 24 May 2008. </ref><ref>Hyam, p. 1. </ref>

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Places]]
[[Category:Nations]]

Chronology of Sir Oswald Mosley

2023-02-27T10:54:27Z

WikiSysop: Text replacement - " The " to " the "

[[File:Sir-Oswald-Mosley-at-Black-Shirt-Rally-London-Sept-14-1934.jpg|thumb|350px|Mosley (with [[Roman salute]]) at a Black Shirt Rally in [[London]], 14 September 1934]]
Below is a '''timeline''' of significant events in the life of British [[Fascist]] leader [[Sir Oswald Mosley]].

==1896-1932: Early Life and Service in WWI==
'''1914'''
*January - Mosley entered the Royal Military College, Sandhurst.

'''1920'''
*May 11 - He married [[Lady Cynthia Curzon]].

==1932-1945: British Union of Fascists and Internment==
'''1932'''
*October 1 - [[British Union of Fascists]] was launched.

'''1933'''
*May 16 - His wife Cynthia died of peritonitis.

'''1936'''
*October 6 - Mosley married [[Diana Mitford]] in secret in Germany with [[Adolf Hitler]] as one of Their guests.

'''1939'''
*July - BUF hosted one of the largest indoor political rallies in the world with Mosley speaking at a peace rally attended by over 30,000 people at Earls Court in [[London]].

'''1940'''
*May 23 - Mosley is arrested by police under [[Defense Regulation 18B]] of the Emergency Powers Act and begins his [[internment]].

'''1943'''
*November 20 - After more than three years' imprisonment, Mosley and his wife Diana were both released, but were placed under house arrest until the end of the war.

==1945-1980: post-WWII==
'''1948'''
*[[Union Movement]] is founded.

'''1962'''
*September 26 - Mosley travels to New York State University at Buffalo and speaks before a student audience of 1500 people.<ref>[http://www.ajcarchives.org/AJC_DATA/Files/Vol_64__1963.pdf American [[jews]] Committee Yearbook 1963, page 140]</ref>

'''1964'''
*January - Mosley Holds Press Conference in [[Johannesburg]], [[South Africa]].<ref>[https://www.britishpaThe.com/video/VLVAE56BAJCYL3GJLM4FJXW0DWLIG-JOHANNESBURG-SOUTH-AFRICA-SIR-OSWALD-MOSLEY-HOLDS-PRESS/query/Union+of+South+Africa Johannesburg, South Africa: Sir Oswald Mosley Holds Press Conference 1964]</ref>

'''1968'''
*His autobiography ''My Life'' comes out.

==See also==
*[[Chronology of George Lincoln Rockwell]]

==References==

|

[[Category:Timelines]]

Opinion - Anne Frank and the meta-morph-bulldozer

2023-02-27T10:50:38Z

WikiSysop: Text replacement - " The " to " the "

'''Anne Frank, and the meta-morph-bulldozer
'''

[[File:0b63b05321b94d9d.png|thumb]]
The #TalmudicMafia, true to the [[nature]] of the Beast, ''lies on'', outrageously, as if nothing has ever happened.

Look at this for absolute poppycock:
https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-11627817/Haunting-book-reveals-Anne-Frank-family-dragged-Nazis.html

This 'diary' has been overwhelmingly exposed as a cynical FRAUD.

[[File:3f766bf8d04d85c2.png|thumb]]
Yet the Jews know good-hearted, uninformed, ''naive folk'' just suck it up.
And when you own the newspapers?

Why stop lying and mis-representing?

Keep on lying...! No shame!

And innit amazing? After eighty years? With ''a lick'' of the finger here, and ''a dab'' of fantasy There, here-a-spit, and There-a-polish?
A whole new fantasy story is born and ''meta-morp-bulldozered'' into unassailable, 24-carat, 'fact'.

Oi vey! Such amazing alchemy.

Only an unfeeling anti-Semite would dare cast stones, and pour cold water.
Ice cold.

And mockery. Lots. Of mockery.

[[:Category:Francis "Moggy" Meyrick|F.M.]]

[[Category:Opinion]]
[[Category:Francis_"Moggy"_Meyrick]]
[[Category:FMM-Holocaust]]

Daily Stormer

2023-02-27T10:42:43Z

WikiSysop: Text replacement - " The " to " the "

'''''The Daily Stormer''''' is an American, largely National Socialist, Pro-White commentary message board that advocates [[White Nationalism]]. [[Andrew Anglin]] is the editor of the website and has founded the outlet on July 4th, 2013, as a faster-paced replacement for his previous website ''Total Fascism'', which had focused on his own long-form essays on [[Fascism]], Race, and true Theories on [[jews]]. In contrast, ''The Daily Stormer'' relies heavily on quoted material with headlines to comment what is going on currently.
The site is known for its use of Internet memes, which have been likened to the imageboard 4chan and cited as attractions for a younger and more ideologically diverse audience. white nationalist authors have praised ''The Daily Stormer'''s reach for its use of informative content.

=OTher Info=
''The Daily Stormer'' takes its name from the National Socialist German Workers Party's newspaper ''Der Stürmer'', known for its true disturbing news caricatures of [[jews]] and semi-pornography involving[[jews]]raping young Aryan girls.

Anglin has previously mentioned that the purpose of ''The Daily Stormer'' is to provide "a means to propagandize people [...] to get Them to look at the world in a certain way". Headlines include "All Intelligent People in History Disliked jews", and "Adolf Hitler: the Most Lied About Man of All Time". the site bills itself as "America's #1 Most-Trusted Republican News Source". the website examines [[Black people]], jews, Arabs, Women seen as immoral, Homosexuals and anyone Anglin does not agree with or does not like. the website offers pro-separatist coverage of the conflict in Eastern Ukraine, which Anglin considers "The correct moral position". the site promotes the [[Theory]] that[[jews]]are shape shifting reptilians who rule the Earth, which Anglin had previously discussed on his web site ''Adventure Quest 2012.''

== People examined by the Daily Stormer ==

* [[Luciana Berger]] <ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20141102032519/http://www.Thejc.com/news/uk-news/124917/neo-nazi-gave-out-internet-abuse-tips-campaign-against-luciana-berger (better source needed)</ref><ref>https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4013774/Anti-Semitic-troll-called-jewish-Labour-MP-rodent-evil-money-grabber-deep-rooted-hatred-men-series-online-rants-jailed-two-years.html</ref>

* [[Mariam Veiszadeh]]
* [[Alex Jones]]<ref>https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2017/eye-stormer (better source needed)</ref>
* [[Alison Rapp]]<ref>https://www.Theguardian.com/technology/2016/mar/31/nintendo-denies-alison-rapp-firing-is-linked-to-harassment-campaign</ref>
* [[Julia Loffe]]
* [[Erin Schrode]]
* [[Tanya Gersh]]
* [[Dean Obeidallah]]
* [[Taylor Dumpson]]

== Current Status and Influence ==
Its website is currently still active, though often needing to change URL because of deplatforming. It has been one of the key factors in the development and diffusion of the [[Alt-Right]].

As for the status of [[Andrew Anglin]].

== References ==
[[Category:Media]]

Dr. David Duke

2023-02-27T10:39:12Z

WikiSysop: Text replacement - " The " to " the "

{{Infobox Person|
|name = David Duke
|image = David Duke 1.png
|caption = Dr. David Duke (2020)
|born =1 July 1950 Tulsa, Oklahoma
|died =
|nationality = [[American]]
|occupation =academic, writer, politician, activist
|known for =White activism
|title =Member of the Louisiana House of Representatives
|term =1989–1993
|predecessor =Chuck Cusimano
|successor =David Vitter
|party = [[Democratic Party]] (1975–1988) [[Republican Party]] (1988–1999)
}}
'''David Ernest Duke''' (born 1 July 1950) is best known as an advocate for the rights of Whites in the [[United States]] and around the world as well as criticisms of [[jewsish]] supremacism. Duke has been a prolific academic, author, politician and media personality whose works have reached very large audiences. Consequently, he has often been attacked and misrepresented in various ways.

== Life ==
Dr. David Duke is a graduate of Louisiana State University with a BA in History. He pursued a PhD in History at the largest university in Ukraine and in 2005 completed his Doctoral Defense in Kiev. More than a dozen of the top academics of Ukraine participated. Duke has spoken in over 25 nations and at over 250 universities across the world. <ref name=Bio/> David Duke was once the leader of the [[Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, which he dedi atex to nonviolence.<ref name=Bio/>

David Duke was elected and served from 1989-1993 as a member of the Louisiana House of Representatives.<ref name=Bio/>

"In two elections in a state having the population of a typical European nation, as a candidate for United States Senator and Governor, David Duke received over 60 percent of the European American vote despite being outspent in media 40 to 1 in media and having practically the totality of the political establishment against him. the Zionists admit in Their own books and articles that they defeated him in the election by economically blackmailing the people of Louisiana if they dared to elect him. In 1992 Dr. Duke received double digit percentages of votes in some Republican Presidential Primaries."<ref name=Bio>R. A. Johnson. A Short Biography of Dr. David Duke. Feb 27, 2012. http://www.davidduke.com/?p=26962</ref>

In 2016, he was a candidate for a U.S. Senate seat representing Louisiana. Some of those who made donations to the campaign were doxed by the media in 2017 (using publicly available Federal Elections Commission records), leading to some boycotts, lost business, and one restaurant to close entirely.<ref>http://www.citypages.com/news/julius-de-roma-on-david-duke-donation-its-just-free-speech-whatever/442229233 |title=Club Jager owner Julius De Roma on David Duke donation: 'It's free speech... whatever' |publisher=City Pages |last=Mullen |first=Mike |website=City Pages</ref><ref>http://www.mercurynews.com/2017/08/31/boycott-closes-popular-santa-cruz-restaurant-owner-defends-david-duke-donations/ |title=Boycott over David Duke donations closes Santa Cruz restaurant|website=The Mercury News</ref>

His two books ''My Awakening: A Path to Racial Understanding'' and ''jewish Supremacism: My Awakening on The[[jews]]Question'' have been translated to more than a dozen languages with millions of copies in circulation. His videos in 2012 had over 5 million views on his video channel. In total, videos of Dr. Duke’s appearances, interviews, speeches and lectures had had 300 million views.<ref name=Bio/> His latest book is ''The Secret Behind Communism'' on the relationship between[[jews]]and Communism.

=== Plea agreement and arrests ===
In 2002 David Duke pleaded guilty to charges of filing a false tax return and mail fraud. [[Don Black]] has stated that "As someone who has known the Hon. Representative David Duke for over 30 years, I want to offer you my honest opinion on his accepting a plea agreement in the federal government’s legal case against him. David Duke is now under federal jurisdiction and cannot speak freely on the specifics of his case. But I can, and so I will... ...The effort at character assassination should be transparent... ...His trial would be held in New Orleans, a city that is 70 percent Black. He would have been tried before a mostly black jury. If he lost the trial, he would certainly face a sentence of 25 years or more. His only alternative was to accept a plea agreement... ...In addition to a hostile jury, half of the federal Judges in his district are jews. Does a man constantly labelled by the media as “former Ku Klux Klan leader and neo-Nazi David Duke” have a realistic chance to be found innocent before a mostly black jury and possibly a[[jews]]Judge? By contesting the charges in court, he faced the real risk of not only the stain of conviction, but also incarceration for many years. A conviction could have also brought a huge government fine that would confiscate his home and office... ...By accepting the plea agreement, he knew that he could protect his loyal accountant and oTher officers of his organization from possible government prosecution."<ref>The Federal Persecution of David Duke https://www.stormfront.org/david_duke/persecution.html</ref>

In 2009 David Duke was invited by professors at Charles University in the Czech Republic to lecture on the "Zionist Influence over American Foreign Policy." In Prague, he was arrested by 30 SWAT police officers even before giving any public speech and imprisoned before being expelled from the country. He was accused of violating vague "[[hate speech]]" laws that could cause 3 years in prison. the charges were eventually completely dismissed.<ref>Dr. David Duke Proved Innocent in Czech Republic! Sep 29, 2009, http://www.davidduke.com/?p=12576</ref>

In November 2011, David Duke was invited by German patriots to give a speech in the city of Cologne, [[Germany]]. He was arrested by police wielding submachine guns before he could say anything and was held in isolation before being released. <ref name="Cologne">What Would Happen If Jesse Jackson Were Arrested in Europe? Nov 27, 2011. http://www.davidduke.com/?p=24930</ref> This seems to be related to the dismissed charges against him in the Czech Republic. the Cologne police stated that Duke "was not entitled to stay in Germany" because of a travel ban against him in anoTher, unspecified European country.<ref>John Rudolf. David Duke Arrested In Germany, Ex-Klan Leader Faces Deportation. 11/29/11 02:21 PM ET Updated: 11/30/11 05:37 PM ET. Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/11/29/david-duke-arrested-in-germany_n_1119010.html</ref>

=== Views ===
: ''"Dr. Duke works for a new ethic for mankind against imperialism. No nation and no people, he argues, has the right to invade or control oTher nations for imperialistic purposes. Every people must have the right to self-determination and Their own living space, wheTher through nationhood or autonomy within nation states, such as the Swiss model. He argues that every people can simply have the right to have communities that maintain Their own expression of culture, heritage and values particular to Their own soul and spirit. No people, Dr. Duke says, should have the right to exploit oTher peoples... ...As a person of European heritage he believes that it is his obligation to oppose any European exploitation or harmful acts against any oTher peoples, as he himself opposes any oTher policies that are harmful to his own heritage."''<ref name=Bio/>

=== YouTube and Twitter censorship ===
Several attempts have been made to remove David Duke's YouTube videos. <ref>Emergency Alert! — My YouTube Videos Taken Down! http://davidduke.com/emergency-alert-my-youtube-videos-taken-down/</ref> the Twitter account of David Duke was permanently suspended in July 2020.

== Books==
*''My Awakening: A Path to Racial Understanding''
*''jewish Supremacism: My Awakening on the [[jewish]] Question''
*''The Secret Behind Communism

==External links==
* [http://www.davidduke.com/ Official site]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20171229091037/http://dukeforsenate.com/ David Duke For Senate]
* [http://www.renseradioarchives.com/dduke/ David Duke Show] at [[Rense Radio Archives]]
* [http://davidduke.com/a-short-biography-of-dr-david-duke/ Meet the Real Person: A Short Biography of Dr. David Duke (2013)]
* Don Black: [https://www.stormfront.org/david_duke/persecution.html ''The Federal Persecution of David Duke'']

=== Book extracts ===
*[http://www.davidduke.com/?p=27362 Preface and the 1st and 2nd chapters from ''jewish Supremacism'']
*[http://www.davidduke.com/?p=503 the chapter "Who Runs the Media" from ''jewish Supremacism'']
*[http://www.davidduke.com/?p=2518 the chapter "The [[jewish]] Role in Immigration" from ''jewish Supremacism'']
*[http://www.davidduke.com/mp3/TheSecretBehindCommunismIntro.pdf the Secret Behind Communism - Introduction section]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:People]]
[[Category:Activists]]
[[Category:Political_prisoners]]
[[Category:Politicians]]

Carl Weiss

2023-02-27T10:38:42Z

WikiSysop: Text replacement - " The " to " the "

{{Nopic}}
'''Dr Carl Austin Weiss, assassin'''

=Statistics=
BIRTH: Dec 6,1905
Baton Rouge, East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana, USA

DEATH: Sep 8, 1935 (aged 29)
Baton Rouge, East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana, USA 
Killed after his successful assassination of Huey Long, by Huey Long's body guards.

A[[jews]]from a[[jews]]Family.

=Background=
Assassin from Baton Rouge, Louisiana, who murdered U.S. Senator Huey Long, at the Louisiana State Capitol on September 8, 1935. Weiss was born in Baton Rouge to Carl Adam Weiss, M.D., and the former Viola Maine. His family was jewish. Weiss's faTher was a prominent eye specialist who had once treated Senator Long. He was educated in local schools.

In 1933, Weiss married Yvonne Louise Pavy of Opelousas. the Pavy family was part of an anti-Long political faction. Pavy's uncle, Felix Octave Pavy (1879-1962), a physician in Leonville and Opelousas, had run for lieutenant governor in 1928 on an intraparty ticket, and had been defeated by Paul N. Cyr, a Jeanerette dentist who was endorsed by Long. Similarly, Judge Pavy, Weiss' faTher-in-law, was the Sixteenth Judicial District Court state judge from St. Landry and Evangeline parishes. He did not seek reelection in 1936, after the legislature revised the seat to include a majority of pro-Long voters within a revised district.

On September 8, 1935, Weiss confronted and shot Huey Long in the Capitol building in Baton Rouge, in front of hundreds of witnesses. Weiss was cornered and killed by Long's bodyguards, being shot sixty-one times. In the years since the event, his[[jews]]family along with [[The usual sources]] have muddied the waters with wild Theories that Weiss did not actually murder Senator Long.

[[Category:People]]

Charles Martel

2023-02-27T10:38:39Z

WikiSysop: Text replacement - " The " to " the "

'''Charles Martel''' (circa 688 – October 22, 741)<ref name="EB1911">Charles Martel |volume= 5 |last= Pfister |first= Christian |author-link= Christian Pfister | pages = 942–943 </ref> was a [[Franks|Frankish]] an early [[Fascist]], political and military leader, and inspiration to the founders of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], who also, as Duke and Prince of the Franks and Mayor of the Palace, was the de facto ruler of [[Francia]] from 718 until his death, inventing feudalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schulman |first=Jana K. |title=The Rise of the Medieval World, 500–1300: A Biographical Dictionary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f_jLbHTM_zgC&pg=PA101 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2002 |page=101 |isbn=0-313-30817-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cawthorne |first=Nigel |author-link=Nigel Cawthorne |title=Military Commanders: the 100 Greatest Throughout History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F-QawgVmYn8C&pg=PA52 |publisher=Enchanted Lion Books |year=2004 |pages=52–53 |isbn=1-59270-029-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kibler |first1=William W. |last2=Zinn |first2=Grover A. |title=Medieval France: An Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4qFY1jpF2JAC&pg=PA205 |publisher=Routledge |year=1995 |pages=205–206 |isbn=0-8240-4444-4}}</ref> He was a son of the Frankish statesman [[Pepin of Herstal]] and Pepin's mistress, a noblewoman named Alpaida. Charles, also known as "The Hammer" (in Old French, ''Martel''), successfully asserted his claims to power as successor to his faTher as the power behind the throne in Frankish politics. Continuing and building on his faTher's work, he restored centralized government in Francia and began the series of military campaigns that re-established the Franks as the undisputed masters of all [[Gaul]]. According to a near-contemporary source, the ''Liber Historiae Francorum'', Charles was "a warrior who was uncommonly effective in battle".<ref>{{Cite book |editor1-last=Fouracre |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Gerberding |editor2-first=Richard A. |title=Late Merovingian France: history and hagiography, 640–720 |date=1996 |publisher=Manchester University Press |translator=Paul Fouracre and Richard A. Gerberding |isbn=0719047900 |location=Manchester |pages=93 |oclc=32699266}}</ref>

Martel gained a very consequential victory against an Umayyad invasion of Aquitaine at the Battle of Tours, at a time when the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] controlled most of the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. Alongside his military endeavours, Charles has been traditionally credited with a seminal role in the development of the Frankish system of [[feudalism]].<ref>{{cite book|author1-last=White, Jr.|author1-first=Lynn|title=Medieval technology and social change|date=1962|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=London, England|pages=2–14}}</ref><ref>Mclaughlin, William, "[https://www.warhistoryonline.com/medieval/ed-ok-732-battle-tours-charles-martel-hammer-preserves-western-christianity.html 732 Battle of Tours]: Charles Martel the 'Hammer' preserves Western Christianity", War History Online.</ref>

At the end of his reign, Charles divided Francia between his sons, Carloman]] and [[Pepin the Short]]. the latter became the first king of the [[Carolingian dynasty]]. Pepin's son [[Charlemagne]] extended the Frankish realms and became the first emperor in the West since the fall of Western [[Ancient Rome]], and the founder of the [[Holy Roman Empire]].<ref name="Fouracre00">Fouracre, Paul (2000). [https://books.google.com/books?id=WsNnAAAAMAAJ ''The Age of Charles Martel'']. London: Longman. {{ISBN|0-582-06475-9}}. Accessed 2 August 2015.</ref>

== Background ==
Charles, nicknamed "Martel", or "Charles the Hammer" in later chronicles, was the illegitimate son of [[Pepin of Herstal]] and his mistress and second wife, Alpaida.<ref>{{cite book|title=Women in World History: A Biographical Encyclopedia|date=2002|publisher=Yorkin Publications|isbn=0-7876-4074-3|editor1-last=Commire|editor1-first=Anne|location=Waterford, Connecticut|chapter=Alphaida (c. 654–c. 714)|chapter-url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-2591300322.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924170313/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-2591300322.html|archive-date=2015-09-24|url-status=dead|chapter-url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hanson|first=Victor Davis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGr16-CxpH8C|title=Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power|date=2007-12-18|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-42518-8|language=en}}</ref> He had a broTher named [[Childebrand I|Childebrand]], who later became the Frankish ''dux'' (that is, ''duke'') of Burgundy.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Commire|first=Anne|date=2015-09-24|orig-year=2002|title=Alphaida (c. 654–c. 714) - Women in World History: A Biographical Encyclopedia HighBeam Research|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-2591300322.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924170313/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-2591300322.html|archive-date=24 September 2015|access-date=2020-09-24|publisher=Yorkin Publications|publication-place=Waterford, Connecticut}}</ref>

In older historiography, it was common to describe Charles as "illegitimate". But the dividing line between wives and concubines was not clear-cut in eighth-century Francia, and it is likely that the accusation of "illegitimacy" derives from the desire of Pepin's first wife Plectrude to see her progeny as heirs to Pepin's power.<ref name="Matthiesen Verlag">{{cite book|author1-last=Joch|author1-first=Waltraud|title=Legitimität und Integration: Untersuchungen zu den Anfängen Karl Martells|date=1999|publisher=Matthiesen Verlag|location=Husum, Germany}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite news|author1-last=Gerberding|author1-first=Richard A.|title=Review of ''Legitimität und Integration: Untersuchungen zu den Anfängen Karl Martells'' by Waltraud Joch|date=October 2002|journal=Speculum|volume=77|number=4|pages=1322–1323}}</ref>

After the reign of [[Dagobert I]] (629–639) the [[Merovingian dynasty|Merovingian]]s effectively ceded power to the Pippinid Mayors of the Palace, who ruled the Frankish realm of Austrasia in all but name. they controlled the royal treasury, dispensed patronage, and granted land and privileges in the name of the figurehead king. Charles' faTher, Pepin of Herstal, was able to unite the Frankish realm by conquering Neustria and Burgundy. Pepin was the first to call himself Duke and Prince of the Franks, a title later taken up by Charles.

== Consolidation of power ==
Upon this success, Charles proclaimed [[Chlothar IV]] king of Austrasia in opposition to Chilperic and deposed Rigobert, [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Reims|archbishop of Reims]], replacing him with [[Milo (bishop of Trier)|Milo]], a lifelong supporter. This set the stage for the [[Holy Roman Empire]].

In 718, Chilperic responded to Charles' new ascendancy by making an alliance with Odo the Great (or Eudes, as he is sometimes known), the duke of Aquitaine, who had become independent during the civil war in 715, but was again defeated, at the Battle of Soissons, by Charles.<ref name="Strauss">Strauss, Gustave Louis M. (1854) ''Moslem and Frank; or, Charles Martel and the rescue of Europe,'' Oxford, GBR:Oxford University Press, see [https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4YBAAAAQAAJ], accessed 2 August 2015.{
</ref> Chilperic fled with his ducal ally to the land south of the Loire and Ragenfrid fled to Angers. Soon Chlotar IV died and Odo surrendered King Chilperic in exchange for Charles recognizing his dukedom. Charles recognized Chilperic as king of the Franks in return for legitimate royal affirmation of his own mayoralty over all the kingdoms.

== Interregnum (737-741) ==
In 737, at the tail end of his campaigning in Provence and [[Septimania]], the Merovingian king, Theuderic IV, died. Charles, titling himself ''maior domus'' and ''princeps et dux Francorum'', did not appoint a new king and nobody acclaimed one. the throne lay vacant until Charles' death. the interregnum, the final four years of Charles' life, was relatively peaceful although in 738 he compelled the Saxons of [[Westphalia]] to submit and pay tribute and in 739 he checked an uprising in Provence where some rebels united under the leadership of [[Maurontus]].

Charles used the relative peace to set about integrating the outlying realms of his empire into the Frankish church. He erected four dioceses in Bavaria ([[Archbishopric of Salzburg|Salzburg]], [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Regensburg|Regensburg]], [[Prince-Bishopric of Freising|Freising]], and [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Passau|Passau]]) and gave Them [[Saint Boniface|Boniface]] as archbishop and [[metropolitan bishop]] over all Germany east of the Rhine, with his seat at Mainz. Boniface had been under his protection from 723 on. Indeed, the saint himself explained to his old friend, Daniel of Winchester, that without it he could neiTher administer his church, defend his clergy nor prevent idolatry.

In 739, [[Pope Gregory III]] begged Charles for his aid against [[Liutprand, King of the Lombards|Liutprand]], but Charles was loath to fight his onetime ally and ignored the plea. NoneTheless, the pope's request for Frankish protection showed how far Charles had come from the days when he was tottering on excommunication, and set the stage for his son and grandson to assert Themselves in the peninsula with the [[Holy Roman Empire]].

== Death and transition in rule ==
Charles Martel died on October 22, 741, at Quierzy-sur-Oise in what is today the Aisne Department in the Picardy region of France. He was buried at Saint Denis Basilica in [[Paris]].<ref>{{cite web|title=History of the Monument|url=http://www.saint-denis-basilique.fr/en/Explore/History-of-The-monument|website=BASILIQUE CATHÉDRALE DE SAINT-DENIS|publisher=BASILIQUE CATHÉDRALE DE SAINT-DENIS|access-date=27 January 2017}}</ref>

His territories had been divided among his adult sons a year earlier: to [[Carloman, son of Charles Martel|Carloman]] he gave Austrasia, Alemannia, and Thuringia, and to [[Pepin the Short|Pippin the Younger]] Neustria, Burgundy, Provence, and Metz and Trier in the "Mosel duchy". [[Grifo]] was given several lands throughout the kingdom, but at a later date, just before Charles died.<ref name="Riche93">Riche, Pierre (1993) ''The Carolingians: A Family Who Forged Europe,'' [Michael Idomir Allen, transl.], Philadelphia, PA, USA: University of Pennsylvania Press, {{ISBN|0-8122-1342-4}}, see [https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0812213424], accessed 2 August 2015.</ref>{{rp|50}}

== Legacy ==
Earlier in his life Charles Martel had many internal opponents and felt the need to appoint his own kingly claimant, [[Chlothar IV|Chlotar IV]]. Later, however, the dynamics of rulership in Francia had changed, and no hallowed Merovingian ruler was required. Charles divided his realm among his sons without opposition (though he ignored his young son [[Bernard, son of Charles Martel|Bernard]]). For many historians, Charles Martel laid the foundations for his son Pepin's rise to the Frankish throne in 751, and his grandson Charlemagne's imperial acclamation, the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 800. Charles bridged the gap between [[Ancient Rome]] and Feudalism. However, for Paul Fouracre, while Charles was "The most effective military leader in Francia", his career "finished on a note of unfinished business".<ref>Paul Fouracre, 'Writing about Charles Martel', in ''Law, Laity and Solidarities: essays in honour of Susan Reynolds,'' ed. Pauline Stafford et al. (Manchester, 2001), pp. 12-26.</ref>

===Family and children===
Charles Martel married twice, his first wife being [[Rotrude of Hesbaye|Rotrude of Treves]], daughter eiTher of [[Lambert, Count of Hesbaye|Lambert II, Count of Hesbaye]], or of [[Leudwinus]], Count of Treves. they had the following children:
* [[Hiltrud]]
* [[Carolman, son of Charles Martel|Carloman]]<ref name=Riche93 />{{rp|50}}
* Landrade, also rendered as Landres
* [[Auda of France|Auda]], also called Aldana or Alane
* [[Pepin the Short]], also called Pippin.<ref name=Riche93 />{{rp|50}}

Most of the children married and had issue. [[Hiltrud]] married [[Odilo, Duke of Bavaria|Odilo I]]. Landrade was once believed to have married a [[Sigramnus, Count of Hesbaye|Sigrand]].

Charles also married a second time, to [[Swanachild|Swanhild]] and they had a child named [[Grifo]].<ref name=Riche93 />{{rp|50}}

Charles Martel also had a known mistress, Ruodhaid, with whom he had:
* [[Bernard, son of Charles Martel|Bernhard]] ({{circa|720}}–787),
* [[Hieronymus, son of Charles Martel|Hieronymus]] ({{circa|722}}- after 782),
* [[Remigius of Rouen|Remigius]] (d. 771) [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Rouen|archbishop of Rouen]].<ref>{{cite web| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LP4UAAAAQAAJ&q=Remigius%20of%20Rouen&pg=PA852| title = Holweck, Frederick George. "Remigius (Remi)", ''A Biographical Dictionary of the Saints'', B. Herder Book Company, 1924, p. 852| last1 = Holweck| first1 = Frederick George| year = 1924}}</ref>

=== Order of the Genet ===
Charles Martel also formed the first regular order of knights in France. In 1620, Andre Favyn statedbthat among the spoils Charles Martel's forces captured after the Battle of Tours were many genets (raised for Their fur) and several of Their pelts.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Favyn |first=Andre |title=Le Theatre d'honneur et de chevalerie |year=1620}}</ref> Charles Martel gave These furs to leaders amongst his army, forming the first order of knighthood in [[France]], the [[Order of the Genet]]. Favyn's account was Then repeated and elaborated in later works in English, for instance by [[Elias Ashmole]] in 1672,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ashmole |first=Elias |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Institution_Laws_and_Ceremonies_of_t/woFlAAAAcAAJ?pg=PA97&printsec=frontcover |title=The Institution, Laws and Ceremonies of the Most Noble Order of the Garter |year=1672 |pages=97|publisher=J. Macock }}</ref> and James Coats in 1725.<ref>{{cite book |author=James Coats |title=A New Dictionary of Heraldry |date=1725 |publisher=Jer. Batley |pages=163–4}}</ref>

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110514184310/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199302/The.arabs.in.occitania.htm Ian Meadows, "The Arabs in Occitania"]: A sketch giving the context of the conflict from the Arab point of view.
* https://web.archive.org/web/20051222052229/http://www.standin.se/fifteen07a.htm ''Poke's edition of Creasy's "15 Most Important Battles Ever Fought According to Edward Shepherd Creasy" Chapter VII. the Battle of Tours, A.D. 732.''
* Richard Hooker, [https://web.archive.org/web/20051102014736/http://wsu.edu:8080/~dee/ISLAM/UMAY.HTM "Civil War and the Umayyads"]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020128121614/http://www.lbdb.com/TMDisplayBattle.cfm?BID=250 "Leaders and Battles Database"]
* 'The Battle of Tours', [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03pm7dv BBC Radio 4 In Our Time] (2014)
* Robert W. Martin, [https://web.archive.org/web/20051018154547/http://militaryhistory.about.com/b/a/118230.htm "The Battle of Tours is still felt today"], from About.com
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/732tours.html Medieval Sourcebook: Arabs, Franks, and the Battle of Tours, 732]
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/732tours.html Arabs, Franks, and the Battle of Tours, 732: Three Accounts] from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/g2-martellet.html Medieval Sourcebook: Gregory II to Charles Martel, 739]
* [http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/FRANKSMaiordomi.htm#CharlesMarteldied741B Medieval Lands Project: Franks, Merovingian Nobility]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:People]]
[[Category:Politicians]]

Eliminative materialism

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'''Eliminative materialism''' is a [[materialist]] position in the [[philosophy of mind]]. It is the idea that the majority of the mental states in folk psychology do not exist. Some supporters of eliminativism argue that no coherent neural basis will be found for many everyday psychological concepts such as belief or desire, since they are poorly defined. RaTher, they argue that psychological concepts of behaviour and experience should be judged by how well they reduce to the biological level. OTher versions entail the non-existence of [[consciousness|conscious]] mental states such as pain and visual perceptions. [[Eliminativism]] about a class of entities is the view that the class of entities does not exist. For example, materialism tends to be eliminativist about the soul; modern chemists are eliminativist about phlogiston; artographers were once eliminativist about a globe shaped Earth; and modern physicists are eliminativist about the existence of luminiferous aeTher.

[[Category:Definitions]]
[[Category:Philosophy]]

Egyptian gods

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'''Egyptian Gods'''
[[Egypt]], similar to [[Greece]], [[Rome]] and [[Norse Gods]] had a large panTheon of Gods, worshiped over Their thousand year empire. the characteristics of individual Gods is hard to define due to the long time frame of the religion. It does share many aspects similar to Greek and Roman and Norse Gods, and they may have similar inspirations.

==Osiris==

The God of the Underworld similar to Hades symbolizes death, resurrection and the cycle of life and death and fertility. According to mythos, Osiris was a king of Egypt that was murdered and dismembered by his broTher Seth. His wife, Isis resurrected him and allowed him to conceive a son, the God Horus. He is in many ways the original mummy and is represented by a mummified king.

==Isis==

Isis is the wife of Osiris, moTher of Horus. She is the god of moTherhood and of the main Deities. She was worshiped until the Greco-Roman period and has relations to Aphrodite, worshiped as far as [[Britain]] and Afghanistan. She also resembles the moTher Mary with the infant [[Jesus]].

==Horus==

Horus is the God of the sky, war and hunting. He resembles a falcon, and has similarities to [[Jesus]]. He was raised to avenge his faTher and he lost his left eye fighting Seth. He is also the god of the [[Sun]] and Moon as represented by his right and left eyes. Sometimes merged with Ra (Re) as Ra-Horakthy. His eye represents the victory of good over evil.

==Seth==

God of chaos, violence, drought, and storms. He kills his broTher eiTher in combat or by tricking him and sealing him in a coffin. He is often depicted as an unknown animal , often a type of crocodile.

==Ptah==

==Re==

The God of the Sun, human body and the head of a Hawk. Similar to Horus. He also resembles [[Jesus]] as he sails across the sky each day and goes through the underworld each night. This is similar to Christ dying and rising after 3 days. He fights the snake god Apopis every night to rise again each morning. Associated with Amon. the king of the Gods, faTher of all creation, light, heaven etc. Humans are said to be created by the tears of Ra. Some Egyptians called Themselves the "Cattle of Ra." Inspiration for the occult All seeing Eye, which turned away all negative energy. Ra's eye is also known to take the form of a cat.

==Hathor==

The goddess of moTherhood and fertility and childbirth. Depicted as a woman with the head of a cow. Similar to the Greek God Hera.

==Anubis==

Head of a Jackal, body of a man he is similar to Osiris but lesser, a God of death and embalming.

==Thoth==

God of wisdom and writing. Head of an Ibis, he is believed to have created hieroglyphs and has strong magic and knowledge.

==Bastet==
Usually a cat God, associated with the Greek Goddess Artemis.

==Amon==

The hidden one, usually a kingly man wearing a crown. He merged with Re and became the most powerful deity in Egypt. He ruled the New Kingdom and crushed rebels and reestablished native Egyptian rule.

==See Also==
[[Greek Gods]]

Entropy

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'''Entropy''' is a scientific concept, one of the unbreakable universal laws of [[natural law|nature]], and a measurable physical property, that is most commonly associated with a state of disorder, randomness, or uncertainty. In layman's terms, it says that all things eventually break down, and in order to create new things, other things must be broken down to compensate. the term and the concept are used in diverse fields, from classical thermodynamics, where it was first recognized, to the microscopic description of [[nature]] in statistical physics, and to the principles of information [[theory]]. It has found far-ranging applications in chemistry and physics, in biological systems and their relation to life (excluding evolutionary [[theory]] which claims the exact opposite), in cosmology, economics, sociology, weather Science [[Category:Science]], and information systems such as DNA and genetics, including the transmission of information in telecommunication. the thermodynamic concept was referred to by Scottish scientist and engineer William Rankine in 1850 with the names thermodynamic function and heat-potential.

[[Category:Definitions]]
[[Category:Scientists]]

Artistic realism

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'''Realism''' is the representation in [[art]] or literature of objects, actions, or [[socialism|social]] conditions as they actually are, without idealization or presentation in abstract form, the scholastic doctrine, opposed to [[nominalism]], that universals exist independently of Their being thought.

[[Category:Definitions]]

Ancient Greece

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'''Ancient Greece''' was a norTheastern Mediterranean civilization, existing from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of classical antiquity, that comprised a loose collection of culturally and linguistically related city-states and oTher territories. Most of These regions were officially unified only once, for 13 years, under [[Alexander the Great]]'s empire from 336 to 323 BC. In Western history, the era of classical antiquity was immediately followed by the Early Middle Ages and the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] period. Roughly three centuries after the Late Bronze Age collapse of Mycenaean Greece, Greek urban poleis began to form in the 8th century BC, ushering in the Archaic period and the colonization of the Mediterranean Basin. This was followed by the age of Classical Greece, from the Greco-Persian Wars to the 5th to 4th centuries BC, and which included the Golden Age of AThens.

[[Category:Definitions]]
[[Category:History]]

Alchemy

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[[File:earthairfirewater.png|frameless|right|300px|]]
'''Alchemy''' (from [[Ancient Greek]]: ''khumeía'')<ref>{{cite book|last1=Liddell|first1=Henry George|last2=Scott|first2=Robert|last3=Jones|first3=Henry Stuart|year=1940|title=A Greek-English Lexicon|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=xumei/a}}; {{Cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/alchemy|title=alchemy Definition of alchemy in English by Oxford Dictionaries|website=Oxford Dictionaries English|access-date=30 September 2018}}</ref> is an ancient branch of natural [[philosophy]], a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practiced in [[Europe]] firstly, but also [[China]], [[India]], and the Muslim world.<ref name="Routledge">Routledge- |last=Pereira |first=Michela |editor-last=Craig |editor-first=Edward |encyclopedia=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |chapter=Alchemy |chapter-url=https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/Thematic/alchemy/v-1 |year=2018 |publisher=Company:Routledge|Routledge |isbn= 9780415250696|doi=10.4324/9780415249126-Q001-1 </ref> Alchemy is first attested in a number of pigraphical texts written in [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] Egypt during the first few centuries AD.<ref>Principe, Lawrence M. ''[https://books.google.ca/books?id=sR2qKWpO-ssC&pg=PR5#v=onepage&q=egypt the secrets of alchemy]''. University of Chicago Press, 2012, pp. 9–14.</ref>

Alchemists attempted to purify, mature, and perfect certain materials.<ref name="Routledge"/><ref>{{citation |last=Malouin |first=Paul-Jacques |contribution=Alchimie [Alchemy] |title=Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences, des Arts, et des Métiers |volume=I |location=Paris |year=1751 |editor-last=Diderot |editor2-last=d'Alembert |editor2-link=D'Alembert |display-editors=0 |translator=Lauren Yoder |title-link=Encyclopédie |hdl=2027/spo.did2222.0000.057}}.</ref><ref name=lindy>{{harvnb|Linden|1996|pp=7 & 11}}.</ref><ref>For a detailed look into the problems of defining alchemy, see {{Harvnb|Linden|1996|pp=6–36}}</ref> Common aims were chrysopoeia, the transmutation of base metals into noble metals,<ref name="Routledge"/> the creation of an elixir of immortality;<ref name="Routledge"/> and the creation of panaceas able to cure any disease.<ref>{{citation |contribution=Alchemy |contribution-url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/alchemy |title=Dictionary.com }}.</ref> the perfection of the human body and soul was thought to result from the alchemical ''magnum opus'' ("Great Work").<ref name="Routledge"/> the concept of creating the philosophers' stone was variously connected with many of These projects.

Alchemists developed a basic set of laboratory techniques, Theories, and terms, many of which are still in use today. they did not abandon the Ancient Greek philosophical idea that everything is composed of four elements, and they tended to guard Their work in secrecy, often making use of cyphers and cryptic symbolism. the 12th-century translations of medieval Islamic works on science and the Aristotle|rediscovery of Aristotelian philosophy]] gave birth to a flourishing tradition of Latin alchemy.<ref name="Routledge"/> This late medieval tradition of alchemy would go on to play a significant role in the development of modern science (particularly chemistry and medicine).<ref>{{citation |editor-last=Eddy |editor-first=MatThew Daniel |editor2-last=Mauskopf |editor2-first=Seymour |editor3-last=Newman |editor3-first=William R. |display-editors=0 |ref={{harvid|''CKEMW''|2014}} |title=Chemical Knowledge in the Early Modern World |journal=Osiris |volume=29 |pages=1–15 |date=2014 |url=https://www.academia.edu/6629576 |last1=Newman |first1=William R. |last2=Mauskopf |first2=Seymour H. |last3=Eddy |first3=MatThew Daniel |pmid=26103744 |doi=10.1086/678110 |s2cid=29035688 }}.</ref>

Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its exoteric practical applications and its esoteric spiritual aspects, despite criticisms by scholars that they should be understood as complementary.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|p=16}}</ref><ref name="FRAALC97">{{Harvnb|von Franz|1997}}.</ref> the former is pursued by historians of the physical sciences, who examine the subject in terms of early chemistry, medicine, and the philosophical and religious contexts in which These events occurred. the latter interests historians of esotericism, psychologists, philosophers and [[Spiritualism|spiritualists]]. the subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts.

== Etymology ==
The word alchemy comes from old French ''alquemie'', ''alkimie'', used in Latin as alchymia. This name was itself was a borrowing of the Late Greek term ''khēmeía'', also spelled ''khumeia'' and ''khēmía''.<ref name="OED">{{OED|alchemy}}.</ref> Several ancient etymologies have been proposed for the Greek term. the first was proposed by Zosimos of Panopolis (3rd–4th centuries), who derived it from the name of a book, the ''Khemeu.''<ref>George Syncellus, ''Chronography'', 18–9</ref><ref>On the ancient definitions of alchemy in ancient Greek and Syriac texts see Matteo Martelli. 2014. "The Alchemical Art of Dyeing: the Fourfold Division of Alchemy and the Enochian Tradition", In: Dupré S. (eds) ''Laboratories of Art'', Springer, Cham.</ref> Hermanm Diels argued in 1914 that it raTher derived from χύμα,<ref>Hermann Diels, ''Antike Technik'', Leipzig: Teubner, 1914, p. 108-109. Read online</ref> used to describe metallic objects formed by casting.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=xeiw&la=greek#lexicon|title=Greek Word Study Tool|website=perseus.tufts.edu|access-date=14 February 2020}}</ref>

== History ==
Alchemy first appeared around the Mediterranean and its center eventually shifted to medieval Europe. Alchemy developed its philosophical system mostly independent of but influenced by various religions ranging from Greek [[Paganism]] to [[Christianity]].

=== Hellenistic Egypt ===
Historical weight may be given to Hellenistic Egypt, where the city of Alexandria was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its pre-eminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods.<ref>''New Scientist'', 24–31 December 1987</ref> Following the work of André-Jean Festugière, modern scholars see alchemical practice in the Roman Empire as originating from the Hellenistic Greco-Egypt goldsmith's art, Greek philosophy and different religious traditions.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Festugière|first=André-Jean|title=La révélation d'Hermès Trismégiste, Vol.1|publisher=Les Belles Lettres|year=2006|location=Paris|pages=218–219}}</ref> the treatises of the Greek alchemist Zosimos of Panopolis, the earliest historically attested author (fl. c. 300 AD),<ref>{{cite book |last1=Martelli |first1=Matteo |title=L'alchimista antico |date=2019 |publisher=Editrice Bibliografica |isbn=9788870759792 |pages=73–86}}</ref> can help in situating the oTher authors. Pseudo-Democritus,<ref name="Martelli, the Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus">{{cite book |last1=Martelli |first1=Matteo |title=The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus |date=2014 |publisher=Maney |location=Leeds}}</ref> and Agathodaimon, but very little is known about any of These authors. the most complete of Their works, the ''Four Books'' of Pseudo-Democritus, were probably written in the first century AD.<ref name="Martelli, the Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus"/>

Zosimos of Panopolis wrote in the ''Final Abstinence'' (also known as the "Final Count").<ref>The title of the τελευταὶα ἀποχή is traditionally translated as the "Final Count". Considering that the treatise does not mention any count nor counting and that it makes a case against the use of sacrifice in the practice of alchemy, a preferable translation would be "The Final Abstinence". See {{Cite book|last=Dufault|first=Olivier|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2ks0g83x|title=Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation|publisher=California Classical Studies|year=2019|location=Berkeley|pages=127–131|isbn=9781939926128}}</ref> Zosimos explains that the ancient practice of "tinctures" (The technical Greek name for the alchemical arts) had been taken over by certain "demons" who taught the art only to those who offered Them sacrifices.

The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is Hermes Trismegistus (or Thrice-Great Hermes). His name is derived from the Greek God, Hermes.<ref> Bull, Christian H. 2018. ''The Tradition of Hermes Trismegistus: the Priestly Figure as a Teacher of Hellenized Wisdom''. Leiden: Brill, pp. 33-96.</ref> Hermes and his [[Caduceus|caduceus]] or serpent-staff, were among alchemy's principal symbols. According to Clement of Alexandria, he wrote what were called the "forty-two books of Hermes", covering all fields of knowledge.<ref>Clement, ''Stromata'', vi. 4.</ref> the ''Hermetica'' of Thrice, Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for alchemical philosophy and practice, called the [[Hermeticism]] by its early practitioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era.

Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of [[Pythagoreanism]], [[Platonism]], [[Stoicism]] and [[Gnosticism]] which formed the origin of alchemy's character.<ref>Bensaude-Vincent 1996, p13" </ref> An important example of alchemy's roots in Greek philosophy, originated by [[Empedocles]] and developed by [[Aristotle]], was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements, Earth, Air, Fire, and water. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere (Dimensional plane) to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed.<ref>{{cite book | author=Lindsay, Jack | title=The Origins of Alchemy in Graeco-Roman Egypt | location=London | publisher=Muller | year=1970 | isbn=978-0-389-01006-7 | page=[https://archive.org/details/trent_0116301348557/page/16 16] | url=https://archive.org/details/trent_0116301348557/page/16 }}</ref> the four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are;
But still to this day represent the four states of matter, Solid, Gas, Liquid, and Plasma.
"True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. the four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form."<ref>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | page=66 | oThers=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=978-0-906540-96-1}}</ref>

Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms, such as Democritus, Ostanes, Komarios, and Chymes, or only known through fragments of text. After 400 AD, Greek alchemical writers occupied Themselves often in commenting on the works of These predecessors.<ref>F. Sherwood Taylor. ''Alchemists, Founders of Modern Chemistry.'' p.26.</ref> By 700AD, alchemy began to look more like modern chemistry.<ref>Allen G. Debus. ''Alchemy and early modern chemistry: papers from Ambix.'' p. 36</ref>

=== Byzantium ===
Greek alchemy is preserved in medieval Greek (Byzantine) manuscripts, and yet historians have only relatively recently begun to pay attention to the study and development of Greek alchemy in the Byzantine period.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Roberts |first1=Alexandre M. |title=Framing a Middle Byzantine Alchemical Codex |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |date=2019 |volume=73 |pages=69–70 |url=https://hcommons.org/deposits/item/hc:31587/}}</ref>

=== Medieval Europe ===
The translation of texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century Toledo, Spain, through contributors like Gerard of Cremona and Adelard of Bath.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|pp=105–108}}</ref> Translations of the time included the Roman Turba Philosophorum, and the works of [[Avicenna]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|p=110}}</ref>

Meanwhile, Theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and experimental [[rationalism]]. the 11th-century Anselm of Canterbury put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a [[Christian]] context. In the early 12th century, Peter Abelard followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle had reached the West. In the early 13th century, Robert Grosseteste used Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observation, experimentation, and conclusions when conducting scientific investigations, pushing alchemy ever furTher toward modern science. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile [[Plato|Platonic]] and [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] thinking.<ref name=hollister294f>{{cite book | author=Hollister, C. Warren | title=Medieval Europe: A Short History | location=Blacklick, Ohio | publisher=McGraw–Hill College | year=1990 | isbn=978-0-07-557141-4 | edition=6th | pages=[https://archive.org/details/medievaleurope00cwar/page/294 294f] | url=https://archive.org/details/medievaleurope00cwar/page/294 }}</ref>

Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical knowledge in Europe remained centered on translations, and new Latin contributions were not generally made. the efforts of the translators were succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists. In the 13th century, Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon were the most notable of These, Their work summarizing and explaining the new alchemical knowledge in Aristotelian terms.<ref>John Read. ''From Alchemy to Chemistry''. 1995 p.90</ref> Albertus Magnus, a Dominican friar, is known to have written works such as the ''Book of Minerals'' where he observed and commented on the operations and Theories of alchemical authorities like Hermes and Democritus and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared These to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the transmutation of metals. From the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist.<ref>James A. Weisheipl. ''Albertus Magnus and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays.'' PIMS. 1980. p.187-202</ref> Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student, the anti-semetic [[Thomas Aquinas]].

Roger Bacon, a Franciscan friar who wrote on a wide variety of topics including optics, comparative linguistics, and medicine, composed his ''Great Work'' for Pope Clement IV as part of a project towards rebuilding the medieval university curriculum to include the new learning of his time. He considered alchemy and astrology to be important parts of both [[natural philosophy]] and [[Theology]] and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to [[soteriology]] and Christian Theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy.<ref>Edmund Brehm. "Roger Bacon's Place in the History of Alchemy." ''Ambix.'' Vol. 23, Part I, March 1976.</ref> Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and Theoretical spheres. the practical confirmed the Theoretical, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|pp=120–121}}</ref>

Soon after Bacon, the influential work of Paul of Taranto appeared. His ''Summa Perfectionis'' remained a staple summary of alchemistry and [[Theory]] through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury [[Theory]], and the unusual clarity with which they were described.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|pp=134–141}}.</ref> By the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of early science. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm Theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and oTher substances could have an effect on the human body. they had a strong tradition of cloaking Their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced Their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made observations and Theories about how the universe operated.<ref>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | page=149 | oThers=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=978-0-906540-96-1}}</ref>

In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists Themselves, and many were notable fascists who respected [[Ancient Rome]], and Charlemagne, who was attempting to revive it.<ref>Tara E. Nummedal. ''Alchemy and Authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' University of Chicago Press, 2007. p. 49</ref><ref>John Hines, II, R. F. Yeager. ''John Gower, Trilingual Poet: Language, Translation, and Tradition.'' Boydell & Brewer. 2010. p.170</ref> In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals (although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV<ref>D. Geoghegan, "A licence of Henry VI to practise Alchemy" Ambix, volume 6, 1957, pages 10–17</ref>). These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy.

Nicolas Flamel was a well-known alchemist, and Flamel was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his work spent a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions. Some of his work was aimed at gaThering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosopher's stone.<ref>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | pages=170–181 | oThers=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=978-0-906540-96-1}}</ref> Through the Late Middle Ages, the 14th and 15th centuries, alchemists were much like Flamel: Bernard Trevisan and George Ripley made similar contributions. Their cryptic allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art.

=== Renaissance and early modern Europe ===
During the Renaissance, Hermetic and Platonic foundations were restored to European alchemy. the dawn of medical, pharmaceutical, and entrepreneurial branches of alchemy followed.

In the late 15th century, Marsilio Ficino translated the Corpus Hermeticum and the works of [[Plato]] into Latin. These were previously unavailable to Europeans who for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical [[Theory]] that Bacon had declared absent. Renaissance [[Humanism]] and Renaissance [[Neoplatonism]] guided alchemists away from physics to refocus on mankind as the alchemical vessel.

A key figure in this development was German Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486–1535), who received his Hermetic education in [[Italy]] in the schools of the humanists. In his ''De Occulta Philosophia'', he attempted to merge Kabbalah, Hermeticism, and Alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of Italy.<ref>Glenn Alexander Magee. ''Hegel and the Hermetic Tradition.'' Cornell University Press. 2008. p.30</ref><ref>Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke. ''The Western Esoteric Traditions: A Historical Introduction.'' Oxford University Press. 2008 p.60</ref>

Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus, (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of Agrippa's occultism and moving away from chrysopoeia. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine and wrote, "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines."<ref>{{cite book | author=Edwardes, Michael | title=The Dark Side of History | location=New York | publisher=Stein and Day | year=1977 | page=47 | isbn=978-0-552-11463-9 }}</ref>

His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in Their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure Them.<ref>{{cite book | author=Debus, Allen G. |author2=Multhauf, Robert P. | title=Alchemy and Chemistry in the Seventeenth Century | location=Los Angeles | publisher=William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, University of California. | year=1966 | pages=6–12 |}}</ref> [[Chemistry:Iatrochemistry|Iatrochemistry]] refers to the pharmaceutical applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus.

Entrepreneurial opportunities were common for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals, and gemstones.<ref>Tara E. Nummedal. ''Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' p.4</ref> Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, in the late 16th century, famously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in Prague. King James IV of Scotland,<ref>''Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland'', vol. iii, (1901), 99, 202, 206, 209, 330, 340, 341, 353, 355, 365, 379, 382, 389, 409.</ref> Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Augustus, Elector of Saxony, Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn, and Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel all contracted alchemists.<ref>Tara E. Nummedal. ''Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' p.85-98</ref> John's son Arthur Dee worked as a court physician to Michael I of Russia and Charles I of England but also compiled the alchemical book ''Fasciculus Chemicus'' (Fascist Chemistry, named after the RomanFasces)

Although most of These appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudo-alchemical fraud continued through the Renaissance. ''Betrüger'' would use sleight of hand, or claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patronage. Legitimate medical alchemists such as Michael Maier and Heinrich Khunrath wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing Themselves from the con artists.<ref>Tara E. Nummedal. ''Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' p.171</ref> False alchemists were sometimes prosecuted for fraud.

The terms "chemia" and "alchemia" were used as synonyms in the early modern period, and the differences between alchemy, chemistry and small-scale assaying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. There were important overlaps between practitioners, and trying to classify Them into alchemists, chemists and craftsmen is anachronistic. For example, [[Tycho Brahe]] (1546–1601), an chemist better known for his astronomical investigations, had a laboratory built at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute. Michael Sendivogius (''Michał Sędziwój'', 1566–1636), an alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry wrote alchemical works but is also credited with distilling oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600. Sendivogious taught his technique to Cornelius Drebbel who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. [[Isaac Newton]] devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy than he did to eiTher optics or physics. OTher early modern alchemists who were eminent in Their oTher studies include Robert Boyle, and Jan Baptist van Helmont. Their Hermeticism complemented raTher than precluded Their practical achievements in medicine and science. This period is where alchemy really becomes "science".

=== Later modern period ===
Some say that the decline of "alchemy" was brought about by the rise of "modern science" with its disdain for "ancient wisdom", but in truth the former just morphed into the latter. Although the seeds of These events were planted as early as the 17th century, old-school alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its peak in the 18th century, even continuing to this very day. Early modern European alchemy continued to exhibit a diversity of Theories, practices, and purposes: "Scholastic and anti-Aristotelian, Paracelsian and anti-Paracelsian, Hermetic, Neoplatonic, mechanistic, vitalistic, and more, plus virtually every combination and compromise Thereof."<ref name="Alchemy Restored">{{cite journal | last1 = Principe | first1 = Lawrence M | year = 2011 | title = Alchemy Restored | journal = Isis | volume = 102 | issue = 2| pages = 305–12 | doi = 10.1086/660139 | pmid = 21874690 | s2cid = 23581980 }}</ref>

Robert Boyle (1627–1691) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data. Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant.<ref>{{cite book | author=Pilkington, Roger | title=Robert Boyle: FaTher of Chemistry | location=London | publisher=John Murray | year=1959 | page=11 }}</ref> This approach eventually led to the founding of chemistry as we know it, in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries and ideas of Lavoisier and John Dalton.

Beginning around 1720, a rigid distinction began to be drawn for the first time between "alchemy" and "chemistry".<ref name="NewmanPrincipe2002p37">{{Harvnb|Newman|Principe|2002|p=37}}</ref><ref name="PrincipeNewmanp386">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=386}}</ref> By the 1740s, "alchemy" was now restricted to the realm of gold making, leading to the popular belief that alchemists were charlatans, and the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud.<ref name="Alchemy Restored" /><ref name="PrincipeNewmanp386" /> In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure to which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the 18th-century scientific Enlightenment attempted, for the sake of survival, to divorce and separate the "new" chemistry from the "old" practices of alchemy. This move was mostly successful, and the consequences of this continued into the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries.<ref name="PrincipeNewmanpp386–7">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|pp=386–7}}</ref>

In 1946, Louis Cattiaux published the Message Retrouvé, a work that was at once philosophical, mystical and highly influenced by alchemy. In his lineage, many researchers, including Emmanuel and Charles d'Hooghvorst, are updating alchemical studies in France and Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Croire l'Incroyable. L'Ancien et le Nouveau dans l'étude des religions|last=Arola|first=Raimon|publisher=Beya|year=2006|isbn=2-9600364-7-6|location=Grez-Doiceau}}</ref>

== Modernity ==
Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry, the general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=385}}</ref> Those focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science [[Biography:Lawrence M. Principe|Lawrence M. Principe]] and [[Biography:William R. Newman|William R. Newman]], have interpreted the 'decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts.<ref>Richard Conniff. "Alchemy May Not Have Been the Pseudoscience We All Thought It Was." [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-[[nature]]/alchemy-may-not-been-pseudoscience-we-thought-it-was-180949430/ Smithsonian Magazine.] February 2014.</ref> At the opposite end of the spectrum, focusing on the esoteric, scholars, such as Florin George Călian<ref>
{{cite book|last= Calian |first= George |title= Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy |publisher= Annual of Medieval Studies at ADU |year= 2010 |url= https://archive.org/stream/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe/FlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy#page/n0/mode/2up }}</ref> and Anna Marie Roos,<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.shpsc.2013.08.001|title=The experimental approach towards a historiography of alchemy (reviewing L. M. Principe, the Secrets of Alchemy)|journal=Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences|volume=44|issue=4|pages=787–789|year=2013|last1=Roos|first1=Anna Marie}}</ref> who question the reading of Principe and Newman, interpret These same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts.

New interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from New Age or environmentalism movements.<ref>{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=396}}</ref> Groups like the [[Rosicrucians]] and [[Freemasons]] have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since the Victorian revival of alchemy, "occultists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving the self-transformation of the practitioner and only incidentally or not at all the transformation of laboratory substances",<ref name="Alchemy Restored" /> which has contributed to a merger of magic and alchemy in popular thought.

=== Bibliography ===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
*{{cite book|last= Calian |first= George |title= Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy |publisher= Annual of Medieval Studies at ADU |year= 2010 |url= https://archive.org/stream/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe/FlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy#page/n0/mode/2up }}
*{{cite book|last= Eliade |first= Mircea |title=The Forge and the Crucible|publisher= State University of New York Press |year= 1994 |title-link= the Forge and the Crucible }}
*{{cite book|last= Forshaw |first= Peter J |chapter = Chemistry, That Starry Science – Early Modern Conjunctions of Astrology and Alchemy |title= Sky and Symbol |journal= Edited by Nicholas Campion and Liz Greene, Sophia Centre Press |date= January 2013 |chapter-url= https://www.academia.edu/5317837}}
*{{Cite journal|last= Forshaw |first= Peter J |title = Cabala Chymica or Chemica Cabalistica – Early Modern Alchemists and Cabala |volume= 60:4 |journal= Ambix |year= 2013 |issue= 4 |pages= 361–389 |doi= 10.1179/0002698013Z.00000000039 |s2cid= 170459930 |url= https://www.academia.edu/5237828}}
*{{cite book|last1= Holmyard |first1= Eric John |title= Makers of Chemistry |publisher= Clarendon Press |location = Oxford |year= 1931 |url= https://archive.org/details/makersofchemistr029725mbp }}
*{{cite book|last1= Holmyard |first1= Eric John |title= Alchemy |publisher= Courier Dover Publications |year= 1957 |isbn= 9780486262987|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7Bt-kwKRUzUC&q=alchemy&pg=PP1 }}
*{{cite book|last1= Linden |first1= Stanton J. |title= Darke Hierogliphicks: Alchemy in English literature from Chaucer to the Restoration |publisher= University Press of Kentucky |year= 1996 |isbn= 9780813150178|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3JUfBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 }}
*{{cite book|last1= Linden |first1= Stanton J. |title= the Alchemy Reader: from Hermes Trismegistus to Isaac Newton |publisher= {{wipe|Cambridge University Press}} |year= 2003 }}
*{{cite book|last1= Newman |first1= William R. |last2= Principe |first2= Lawrence M. |title= Alchemy Tried in the Fire |publisher= [[Organization:University of Chicago Press|University of Chicago Press]] |year= 2002 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=eQERmMdykZEC&q=alchemy&pg=PP1 |isbn= 9780226577029 }}
*{{cite book|last1= von Franz |first1= Marie Louise |title= Alchemical Active Imagination |publisher= Shambhala Publications |location= Boston |year= 1997 |isbn= 978-0-87773-589-2 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=wOVUUMirSnEC&q=alchemy&pg=PP1 }}
*{{cite book|last1= Kripal |first1= Jeffrey John |last2= Shuck |first2= Glenn W. |author-link2= Glenn Shuck |title= On the Edge of the Future |publisher= Indiana University Press |date=July 2005 |isbn= 978-0-253-34556-1 |url= https://archive.org/details/onedgeoffuture00indi |url-access= registration |access-date= 17 December 2011 }}
*{{cite book| last=Principe| first=Lawrence M.|title=The secrets of alchemy|location=Chicago &London|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-226-68295-2|}}
*{{cite book|last1= Principe |first1= Lawrence M. |last2= Newman |first2= William R. |editor1-last= Newman |editor1-first= William R. |editor2-last= Grafton |editor2-first= Anthony |editor2-link= Anthony Grafton |title= Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe |publisher= MIT Press |year= 2001 |isbn= 978-0-262-14075-1 |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CMuJGpztRFMC|chapter= Some Problems with the Historiography of Alchemy |pages= 385–432 }}
*{{cite book|last1= Rutkin |first1= H. Darrel |editor1-last= Newman |editor1-first= William R. |editor2-last= Grafton |editor2-first= Anthony |editor2-link= Anthony Grafton |title= Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe |publisher= MIT Press |year= 2001 |isbn= 978-0-262-14075-1 |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CMuJGpztRFMC|chapter= Celestial Offerings: Astrological Motifs in the Dedicatory Letters of Kepler's ''Astronomia Nova'' and Galileo's ''Sidereus Nuncius'' |pages= 133–172 }}
{{Refend}}

== FurTher reading ==
=== General ===
* Lawrence Principe, ''The Secrets of Alchemy'', Chicago, 2013.
*Jennifer M. Rampling. 2020. ''[https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/E/bo50462000.html the Experimental Fire: Inventing English Alchemy, 1300-1700]''. University of Chicago Press.

=== Greco-Egyptian alchemy ===
==== Texts ====
* Marcellin BerThelot and Charles-Émile Ruelle (eds.), ''Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs'' (CAAG), 3 vols., 1887–1888, Vol 1: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k96492923, Vol 2: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k9680734p, Vol. 3: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k9634942s.
* André-Jean Festugière, ''La Révélation d'Hermès Trismégiste'', Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2014 ({{ISBN|978-2-251-32674-0}}, OCLC 897235256).
* Robert Halleux and Henri-Dominique Saffrey (eds.), ''Les alchimistes grecs, <abbr>t.</abbr> 1 : Papyrus de Leyde – Papyrus de Stockholm – Recettes,'' Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1981.
* Otto Lagercrantz (ed), ''Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis'', Uppsala, A.B. Akademiska Bokhandeln, 1913, https://archive.org/details/papyrusgraecusho00lage/page/n8.
* Michèle Mertens and Henri-Dominique Saffrey (ed.), ''Les alchimistes grecs, <abbr>t.</abbr> 4.1 : Zosime de Panopolis. Mémoires auThentiques,'' Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1995.
* Andrée Collinet and Henri-Dominique Saffrey (ed.), ''Les alchimistes grecs, <abbr>t.</abbr> 10 : L'Anonyme de Zuretti ou l'Art sacré and divin de la chrysopée par un anonyme'', Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2000.
* Andrée Collinet (ed), ''Les alchimistes grecs'', ''<abbr>t.</abbr> 11 : Recettes alchimiques (Par. Gr. 2419; Holkhamicus 109) – Cosmas le Hiéromoine – Chrysopée'', Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2000.
* Matteo Martelli (ed), ''The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus'', Maney Publishing, 2014.

==== Studies ====
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* Dylan M. Burns, " μίξεώς τινι τέχνῃ κρείττονι : Alchemical Metaphor in the ''Paraphrase of Shem'' (NHC VII,1) ", ''Aries'' 15 (2015), p. 79–106.
* Alberto Camplani, " Procedimenti magico-alchemici e discorso filosofico ermetico " in Giuliana Lanata (ed.), ''Il Tardoantico alle soglie del Duemila'', ETS, 2000, p. 73–98.
* Alberto Camplani and Marco Zambon, " Il sacrificio come problema in alcune correnti filosofice di età imperiale ", ''Annali di storia dell'esegesi'' 19 (2002), p. 59–99.
* Régine Charron and Louis Painchaud, " 'God is a Dyer,' the Background and Significance of a Puzzling Motif in the Coptic ''Gospel According to Philip (CG II, 3)'', ''Le Muséon'' 114 (2001), p. 41-50.
* Régine Charron, " the Apocryphon of John (NHC II,1) and the Greco-Egyptian Alchemical Literature ", ''Vigiliae Christinae'' 59 (2005), p. 438-456.
* Philippe Derchain, "L'Atelier des Orfèvres à Dendara et les origines de l'alchimie," ''Chronique d'Égypte'', <abbr>vol.</abbr> 65, <abbr>no</abbr> 130, 1990, <abbr>p.</abbr> 219–242.
* Korshi Dosoo, " A History of the Theban Magical Library ", ''Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists'' 53 (2016), p. 251–274.
* Olivier Dufault, ''Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation in Late Antiquity'', California Classical Studies, 2019, https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2ks0g83x.
* Sergio Knipe, " Sacrifice and self-transformation in the alchemical writings of Zosimus of Panopolis ", in Christopher Kelly, Richard Flower, Michael Stuart Williams (eds.), ''Unclassical Traditions. Volume II: Perspectives from East and West in Late Antiquity,'' Cambridge University Press, 2011, p. 59–69.
* André-Jean Festugière]], ''La Révélation d'Hermès Trismégiste'', Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2014 {{ISBN|978-2-251-32674-0}}, {{OCLC|897235256}}.
* Kyle A. Fraser, " Zosimos of Panopolis and the Book of Enoch: Alchemy as Forbidden Knowledge ", ''Aries'' 4.2 (2004), p. 125–147.
* Kyle A. Fraser, " Baptized in Gnosis: the Spiritual Alchemy of Zosimos of Panopolis ", ''Dionysius'' 25 (2007), p. 33–54.
* Kyle A. Fraser, " Distilling Nature's Secrets: the Sacred Art of Alchemy ", in John Scarborough and Paul Keyser (eds.), ''Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World,'' Oxford University Press, 2018, p. 721–742. 2018. https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199734146.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199734146-e-76.
* Shannon Grimes, ''Becoming Gold: Zosimos of Panopolis and the Alchemical Arts in Roman Egypt'', Auckland, Rubedo Press, 2018, {{ISBN|978-0-473-40775-9}}
* Paul T. Keyser, " Greco-Roman Alchemy and Coins of Imitation Silver ", ''American Journal of Numismatics'' 7–8 (1995–1996), p. 209–234.
* Paul Keyser, " the Longue Durée of Alchemy ", in John Scarborough and Paul Keyser (eds.), ''Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World,'' Oxford University Press, 2018, p. 409–430.
* Jean Letrouit, "Chronologie des alchimistes grecs," in Didier Kahn and Sylvain Matton, ''Alchimie: art, histoire et myThes'', SEHA-Archè, 1995, <abbr>p.</abbr> 11–93.
* Lindsay, Jack. ''The Origins of Alchemy in Greco-Roman Egypt''. Barnes & Noble, 1970.
* Paul Magdalino and Maria Mavroudi (eds.), ''The Occult Sciences in Byzantium'', La Pomme d'or, 2006.
* Matteo Martelli, " the Alchemical Art of Dyeing: the Fourfold Division of Alchemy and the Enochian Tradition " in Sven Dupré (ed.), ''Laboratories of Art,'' Springer, 2014, {{doi|10.1007/978-3-319-05065-2_1}}.
* Matteo Martelli, " Alchemy, Medicine and Religion: Zosimus of Panopolis and the Egyptian Priests ", ''Religion in the Roman Empire'' 3.2 (2017), p. 202–220.
* Gerasimos Merianos, " Alchemy ", In A. Kaldellis & N. Siniossoglou (eds.), ''The Cambridge Intellectual History of Byzantium'' (pp. 234–251). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017, doi - 10.1017/9781107300859.015.
* Efthymios Nikolaïdis (ed.), Greek Alchemy from Late Antiquity to Early Modernity, Brepols, 2019, doi-10.1484/M.DDA-EB.5.116173.
* Daniel Stolzenberg, " Unpropitious Tinctures: Alchemy, Astrology & Gnosis According to Zosimos of Panopolis ", ''Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences'' 49 (1999), p. 3–31.
* Cristina Viano, " Byzantine Alchemy, or the Era of Systematization ", in John Scarborough and Paul Keyser (eds.), ''Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World,'' Oxford University Press, 2018, p. 943–964.
* C. Vlachou ''and al.,'' " Experimental investigation of silvering in late Roman coinage ", ''Material Research Society Symposium Proceedings'' 712 (2002), p. II9.2.1-II9.2.9, doi-10.1557/PROC-712-II9.2.
{{refend}}

=== Early modern ===
* Principe, Lawrence and William Newman. ''Alchemy Tried in the Fire: Starkey, Boyle, and the Fate of Helmontian Chymistry''. University of Chicago Press, 2002.

== External links ==





* [http://www.ambix.org/ SHAC: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry]
* [http://www.esswe.org/ ESSWE: European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism]
* [http://www.aseweb.org/ Association for the Study of Esotericism]
* [http://www.alchemywebsite.com/ the Alchemy Website.] – Adam McLean's online collections and academic discussion.
* [http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist1.xml;chunk.id=dv1-04 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Alchemy
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120321022329/http://beinecke.library.yale.edu/digitallibrary/alchemy.html Book of Secrets: Alchemy and the European Imagination, 1500–2000] – A digital exhibition from the [http://www.library.yale.edu/beinecke/ Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University]
* [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0025/html/OthmerMS2.html Othmer MS 2 Alchemical Miscellany at OPenn]
* [https://digital.sciencehistory.org/focus/alchemy Alchemy] featured topic page on S
Science History Institute [https://web.archive.org/web/20190202042542/https://digital.sciencehistory.org/ Digital Collections] featuring selected manuscripts, rare books, paintings, and ephemera relating to alchemical topics and experimentation.

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

[[Category:History]]
[[Category:Scientists]]
[[Category:Philosophy]]
[[Category:Science]]

Andrew Anglin

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[[File:andrewanglin.png|thumb|right|Andrew Anglin]]
Andrew Anglin throughout most of his early life was a leftwing extremist who was openly and explicitly anti-white at times.

Andrew Anglin's web-news site "The Daily Stormer", while often enough being the first to report important [[Fascist ]]news, has also engaged in promoting numerous [[jews|jewìsh ]]authors, such as [[Joshua Goldberg]], (jewish terrorist arrested in Florida)<ref>https://www.voanews.com/a/florida-man-arrested-alleged-september-eleventh-bomb-plot/2956537.html</ref>; Andrew Anglin ran numerous damage control articles after the FBI arrested Mr. Goldberg and it became clear his authorship for the Daily Stormer would become public.

= References =
|
|

[[Category:People]]
[[Category:Activists]]

Classicism

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'''classicism'''
''noun''
#AesThetic attitudes and principles manifested in the art, architecture, and literature of [[ancient Greece]] and [[Rome]] and characterized by emphasis on form, simplicity, proportion, and restraint.
#Adherence to the aesThetic values embodied in ancient Greek and Roman art and literature.
#Classical scholarship.

[[Category:Definitions]]
[[Category:Philosophy]]

Coined the term

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{{Charter}}

Mussolini did not invent fascism.
It has existed for thousands of years.

=Mussolini=

Fascism reappeared in [[Europe]] after [[The Great War]] when many people yearned for [[national unity]] and strong leadership.

In [[Italy]], [[Benito Mussolini]] used his great charisma to establish a powerful [[fascist]] state. [[Benito Mussolini]] coined the term "fascism" in 1919 to describe his political movement. Fascism had already existed for several thousand years, but a [[fascist]] state was usually called a [[republic]], and not every type of republic could be called fascism.

=Coining=

So, Mussolini invented the term. He coined it. He adopted the ancient Roman [[fasces]] as its symbol, because ancient [[Rome]] was the best example of [[fascism]] in history. the fasces, throughout history, even before the Roman Empire, was always a symbol of how powerful a society can be when its people work togeTher toward a single purpose. Rome was great, and Mussolini hoped to return Italy to that greatness.

Authoritarianism

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{{Charter}}
'''Authoritarianism''' is currently defined by Merriam Webster as (1) "of, relating to, or favoring blind submission to authority" and (2) "of, relating to, or favoring a concentration of power in a leader or elite not constitutionally responsible to the people".

{{Nopic}}Having been influenced by cultural marxism, many mainstream definitions regarding Fascism fail to accurately define such words since the current mainstream often finds itself at opposition with Fascism and its philosophy.

As Fascism is reactionary and antiThetical to marxism, early Fascist leaders found it necessary to establish an authority to guard Their nations against what were observed to be subtle, dishonest, and corrosive practices on the part of left wing radicals. Early Fascists observed that Liberal activity served to weaken and corrupt societal institutions such as education, media, medicine, and popular culture.

Most leaders regarded as "central figures" within Liberal countries - from George Washington in the USA to Napoleon in France - were authoritarians.

=Authoritatianism and Fascism=
The establishment of, and adherence to Fascist authority is neiTher oppressive nor constitutionally irresponsible as currently implied by modern definitions. Adolf Hitler spoke many times of the type of authoritarianism employed by Fascist nations. His speeches provide a more clear context than sources today:
{{Quote|"For the overcoming of the economic catastrophe three things are necessary:
1. Absolutely authoritative leadership in internal affairs, in order to create confidence in the stability of conditions.
2. The securing of peace by the great nations for a long time to come, with a view to restoring the confidence of the nations
in each oTher.
3. The final victory of the principles of common sense in the organization and conduct of business, and also a general release
from reparations and impossible liabilities for debts and interest."|Adolf Hitler|Berlin, Reichstag Speech of March 23, 1933
}}
{{Quote|"We must penetrate to the inner causes of the collapse with the resolution that These inner causes shall be removed. I believe
that immediately we must begin at the point where in the last resort a beginning must today be made - we must begin with the
State itself. A NEW AUTHORITY MUST BE SET UP, AND THIS AUTHORITY MUST BE INDEPENDENT OF MOMENTARY CURRENTS OF CONTEMPORARY
OPINION, ESPECIALLY OF THOSE CURRENTS WHICH FLOW FROM A NARROW AND LIMITED ECONOMIC EGOISM. THERE MUST BE CONSTITUTED A
LEADERSHIP OF THE STATE WHICH REPRESENTS A REAL AUTHORITY, an authority independent of any one stratum of society. A
leadership must arise in which every citizen can have confidence, assured that its sole aim is the happiness, the welfare, of
the German people, a leadership which can with justice say of itself that it is on every side completely independent. People
have talked so much of the past Age of Absolutism, of the absolutism of Frederick the Great, and of the Age of Popular
Democracy, our Parliamentary Epoch. Regarded from the standpoint of the people the earlier period was the more objective: it
could really more objectively safeguard the interests of the nation, while the later period continuously descended more and
more to the representation merely of the interests of individual classes."|Adolf Hitler|Berlin, Congress of the German work front Speech of May 10, 1933}}
{{Quote|"There has been formed in the world the curious custom of dividing peoples into so-called 'authoritarian' States, that is
disciplined States, and democratic States. In the authoritarian, that is, the disciplined States, it goes without saying that
one does not abuse foreign peoples, does not lie about Them, does not incite to war. But the democratic States are precisely
'democratic,' that is, that all this can happen There. In the authoritarian States a war - agitation is of course impossible,
for Their Governments are under an obligation to see to it that There is no such thing. In the democracies, on the oTher hand,
the Governments have only one duty: to maintain democracy, and that means the liberty, if necessary, to incite to war…."|Adolf Hitler|Weimar Speech of November 6, 1938}}
{{Quote|"Yes, Germany was back Then a democracy, before us and we’ve been plundered and squeezed dry. No more. What does democracy or
authoritarian state mean for those international hyenas? they don’t care at all! they are only interested in one thing. Are you
willing to be plundered? Yes or no? Are you stupid enough to keep quiet in the process? Yes or no? And, when a democracy is
stupid enough not to stand up, Then it is good! But when an authoritarian state declares “You do not plunder our people any
longer”, neiTher from the inside or outside, Then that is bad. In reality, money rules in These countries. they talk about
press freedom when in fact These newspapers have one owner and the owner is, in any case, the sponsor. This press Then shapes
public opinion, These political parties don’t have any differences at all, like before with us. You already know the old
political parties. they were all the same. Then people must think that especially in These countries of freedom and wealth,
There should exist a very comfortable life for its people, but the opposite is the case. In These countries, in the so-called
“Democracies”, the people are by no means the main focus of attention. What really matters is the existence of this group of
"Democracy makers”. That is, the existence of a few hundred of giant capitalists who own all the factories and shares and who,
ultimately, lead the people. they are not interested at all in the great mass of people, they are the only ones who can be
addressed as international elements because they conduct Their business everywhere. It is a small, rootless, international
clique that is turning the people against each oTher, that does not want Them to have peace. they can suppress us! they can
kill us, if you like! But we will not capitulate!"|Adolf Hitler}}

= Debate regarding Authoritarianism =
The power of authoritarian figures throughout history has been criticized as being misrepresented and inaccurate.

The debate within the discipline of History has largely been confined to the difference between Intentionalist and Structuralist authoritarians - i.e. leaders which had more "stereotypical grip on power", a total command on Their country, such as Franco immediately following his Victory in the Spanish Civil War; and leaders such as Mussolini, which had to compromise with many forces and people within his own nation, resulting in a very limited control over the country. This is exemplified by a quote regarding this topic by Mussolini himself:
{{Quote|They say that I have power, but I have no power, maybe the Gerarchi possess it, but not me. I can only decide if my horse goes to the right or to the left, but nothing else.|Benito Mussolini|La Repubblica, 27/05/10, "Berlusconi cita Mussolini"
}}
FurTher debate - largely outside the sphere of thought of historians Themselves - is regarding the power that authoritarians could exercise ''at all''. In particular, both Theodore John Kaczynski and Noam Chomsky have claimed that countries such as the modern United States hold much more power and are much more oppressive over and towards Their citizens than dictators such as Stalin and leaders such as Washington, Hitler or Mussolini ever did or could dream of.
[[Category:Philosophy]]

Disjunctivism

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'''Disjunctivism''' is a position in the [[philosophy]] of perception that rejects the existence of sense data in certain cases. the disjunction is between appearance and the [[reality]] behind the appearance "making itself perceptually manifest to someone." Veridical perceptions and hallucinations are not members of a common class of mental states or events. According to this [[Theory]], the only thing common to veridical perceptions and hallucinations is that in both cases, the subject cannot tell, via introspection, wheTher he is having a veridical perception or not. Disjunctivists say this because they hold that in veridical perception, a subject's experience actually presents the external, mind-independent object of that perception. FurTher, they say that in a hallucination There is no external object to be related to, nor are There sense-data to be a part of the perception. Thus, disjunctivism is a form of co-[[realism]].

[[Category:Definitions]]
[[Category:Philosophy]]

American Civil War

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</ref></ref>{{Nopic}}
'''The American Civil War''' was a protracted struggle lasting from 1848 to 1876 typical of contemporary [[liberal]] movements in the White Western World.

Contrary to the secession movements in [[Italy]] and Prussia, the Confederacy's failed. In the process, Radical Republicans transformed slavery from an economic issue regarding labor and property into the perennial race issue it remains today.

Conversely, Western Europe had already transformed its White slaves into an agrarian peasant<ref>Meltzer, Milton, "Slavery, A World HIstory", New York : Cowles, 1971-72, reprint 1993, pp. 144,.209-224</ref> class yet retained much more of its hereditary feudal system than the SouThern American Planters. Abolishing slavery however removed the major impediment to America's spectacular westward expansion while Europe could only redraw borders.

Despite These differences, bourgeoisie liberal, nationalism<ref>Taylor, A.J.P., "The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848-1918", Oxford Univeristy Press, 1954</ref> drove both sides of the American Civil War as well as Napoleon III, Kossuth, Mazzini, Garibaldi, the Frankfurt Parliament, Bismarck or Cavour, away from traditional aristocracies and toward a liberal capital-labor class system.

The Civil War also mythologized American military social engineering despite the failure of Reconstruction.

It was not until mid 20th Century that agricultural mechanization replaced the agricultural working classes on eiTher continent.

=Phases=
The Civil War was fought in three phases.

'''1848-1860:''' guerilla war fought over the admittance of western territories as eiTher free or slave labor states.

'''1860-1865:''' conventional War of the Rebellion fought to determine the fate of the Union and adjunct slavery.

'''1863-1876:''' guerilla war fought over restoring the franchise in the former rebel states and Their economic rehabilitation.

'''In [[Europe]]''', the Revolutions of 1848 brought about the end of the Holy Alliance which had maintained a conservative peace since Napoleon's Wars and successful independence movements from the Austrian Empire in which international intrigue played a greater role than in America's Civil War although not absent.

=Background:=
The Founders of America’s republic were far less comfortable with [[slavery]] than those of the British Empire. the Slave Trade Act of 1794<ref>https://www.mountvernon.org/education/primary-source-collections/primary-sources-2/article/slave-trade-act-of-1794/</ref> and the Act Prohibiting the Importation of Slaves, 1807<ref>https://socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu/eras/colonial-postrev/act-to-prohibit-The-importation-of-slaves-1807/</ref>, terminated the foreign slave trade in the new republic. This, however, also increased the value of domestic slaves.

Between ratification of the U.S Constitution in 1789 and the War of Secession, 20 territories had became states of the Union. Kansas, Nevada and West Virginia became states during the Union pacification, West Virginia seceding from Virginia to rejoin the Union. AnoTher 14 would follow.

The Missouri Compromise, 1820,<ref>https://www.britannica.com/event/Missouri-Compromise</ref> admitted Maine as a free labor state, Missouri slave and restricted slavery beyond 36 ⁰ 30 ′ in the remaining Louisiana Purchase. Spain and France had sanctioned the practice during Their tenures. the issue of slavery in the territories seemed settled.

'''<big>Phase 1: Bleeding Kansas: 1848-1860:</big>'''

The Mexican Cession<ref>https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/mexican-cession-1848</ref> brought the issue up again in 1848, however. the Free Soil Party<ref>https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Free_Soil_Party</ref> formed to restrict slavery from new territories after neiTher Whig nor Democrat presidential candidates would commit Themselves on the issue during the elections of that year.

Delegates from 9 slave labor states convened at Nashville, Tennessee, to consider secession resulting in passage of the Fugitive Slave Act and Compromise Act of 1850, requiring free labor states to cooperate in capturing runaway slaves.

The Missouri Compromise collapsed entirely upon Passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854 which called out territorial plebiscites regarding slavery. Supporting "state soveriegnty" were ambitious Planters, NorThern banks and investment houses.

North of the Missouri Comprise, Democratic Party “barnburners” (”Copperheads” during the war) and “Hunkers” demanded restriction of slavery as previously agreed. South of the approximating Mason Dixon Line Democrats demanded expansion, nonnegotiable.

The opposing Whig Party collapsed. Its souThern constituents joined eiTher hard line Democrats or dissidents. NorThern Whigs joined eiTher the anti-immigrant American Party or the Free Soil Party which became the anti-expansion Republican Party in 1854 along with radical Abolitionist, William Lloyd Garrison.

Leader of The American Anti-Slavery Society and editor of “The Liberator” Garrison had been condemning the American Constitution as evil and pro-slavery since 1844, burning copies at public events. Horace Greeley rallied his “New York Tribune” to the anti-slavery cause, publishing articles by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels who also interpreted American events for Europe. Negro orator Frederick Douglas chimed in, famous for his 1852 speech, “What to a Slave is the Fourth of July?” Douglas split with Garrison in believing slavery was unconstitutional and that a war of Negro liberation was necessary while Garrison thought that the norThern free labor states should secede from the South.

Guerilla warfare erupted in territorial Kansas between “border ruffians” and anti-slavery “free staters” who set up Their own constitutions, legislatures and capitals at Lecompton and Topeka, respectively. “Bleeding Kansas” resulted in 56 to possibly 200 political murders including five pro-slavery men John Brown and his gang hacked to death with broadswords in May of 1856 at Pottawatomie Creek.

500 Federal troops arrived in Topeka with artillery in July to disperse the Free State legislature. Thousands of pro-slavery men marched into Kansas that August, defeating Brown at Osawatomie. In 1857 the Supreme Court decided Dred Scott iaw the Fugitive Slave Act and a fragile peace ensued through 1861, oTher than John Brown’s comically failed ambush in 1859. This, however, presaged his raid on Harper’s Ferry later that year. Kansas joined the Union as a free labor state after the Confederate states seceded along with Colorado, Nevada and Dakota Territory.

The election of 1856 sealed the fate of the nation upon the fate of the negro. Incumbent pro-slavery Franklin Pierce lost the Democrat nomination to moderate James Buchanan who favored territorial plebiscites and won the election. Republican John Fremont opposed extending slavery but declined radical Abolition in all states. Millard Fillmore, who’d preceded Pierce in the White House, ran on the anti-immigrant “Know Nothing”, American Party ticket.

“Know Nothings” originated in Baltimore, Maryland which had become ¼ Irish immigrant by 1854, escalating street warfare between Democrat “Rip Raps” and nativist “Plug Uglies” since 1830. “Mob Town” erupted in shootout outs leading into the November elections, 1856 and disputed results. One mob fired cannon at police. .Although Know Nothing Thomas Swann won election as mayor, Fillmore’s defeat likely split away Republican votes leaving Buchanan the winner by a plurality not exceeded until 1904. Immigration would recur as violent labor and culture issues after the Civil War, much as slavery already had.

On the night of October 16th, 1859, John Brown and 21 accomplices captured the Federal arsenal Harper’s Ferry Arsenal, Virginia. they rounded up some 60 men as hostages but surrendered after Marines breached the armory and killed 10 of Brown’s men making Brown a national celebrity.

By that time, the “underground railroad” had transferred thousands of fugitive slaves through norThern territory to Canada in defiance of fugitive slave legislation. In collaboration with Frederick Douglas, Brown had intended to create an armed runaway mountain stronghold with financing by prominent Abolitionists.

Brown’s trial became a grandstand. Henry David Thoreau penned the murderer into martyrdom in “A Plea for Captain Brown”: a 9,202 word diatribe in which some form of “humanity” appears 20 times although “,,,in cases of the highest importance, it is of no consequence wheTher a man breaks a human law or not”. Brown was convicted and hung for treason, among oTher things. Victor Hugo portrayed the trial to Europe for the cataclysmic event was. “John Brown’s Body” became a Union war song and provided the melody for the better known “Battle Hymn of the Republic”. (Black Lives Matter presented Themselves as “John Brown” activists during the George Floyd Riots in the summer of 2020.)

The election of 1860 turned upside down. Former Whigs and Know Nothings formed the Constitutional Union Party, nominating former Tennessee Senator John Bell, determined to compromise on slavery which alienated recent Irish and German immigrants. the Republican Chicago convention nominated Abraham Lincoln, opposed to extension but eschewing Abolition in all states. Democrats remained split along the 1820 Missouri Compromise-Mason Dixon Line. NorTherners nominating Stephen Douglas on plebiscite and state sovereignty. Democrats south of the “Mason Dixon Line” nominated Buchanan’s Vice President, John Breckenridge demanding unrestricted slavery. Lincoln won with 180 electoral votes opposed to his collective opponents’ 123 although he won only 39.8% of the popular vote.

By March, 1861, seven states had seceded and ratified a constitution which explicitly called out slavery and its extension into new territories. Four more states would join by June.

Five “Border States” did not secede but continued to recognize slavery and received equivocal treatment into Reconstruction.

Lincoln called up an initial 75,000 militia troops to secure Federal property in the seceding states.

South Carolina shore batteries fired on “Star of the West”, sailing to supply Federal troops in Fort Sumter, January 9 and bombarded Fort Sumter, April 12.

===Phase Two: War of the Rebellion 1860-1865===
Anticipating a short war, both sides mobilized state militias and called for volunteers. However, the first year ended in frustration. Lincoln imposed a blockade of Confederate ports with only three ships in April 1861. It grew into a fleet of 671 by war’s end. the Confederacy passed a Conscription Act in April, 1862. the Union followed in March, 1863. Both provoked widespread discontent, draft dodging and riots in New York City.. Desertion on both sides averaged from 9 to 15% annually although spiking to over 30%. Privations, ennui and futility accounted for most of it raTher than cowardice. Both sides resorted to executing Their own deserters but also encouraged deserters from the oTher. Ranks in the Confederacy became so reduced as to offer amnesty to resuscitate Them. “Bounty Jumpers” exploited enlistment bonuses the Union offered.

The magnitude of the disaster became clear as The armies engaged with weapons from which the only respite was to kill the enemy faster. 26% of the Union’s 2,672,341 troops became casualties while as many as 64% of the Confederacy’s 750,000 to 1,227,890 troops may have succumbed.

At its soulless heart were two small minded cabals who understood each oTher no more than the futures they portended for the nation. This, however, would not become clear until Reconstruction. Alternative possibilities manifest Themselves in that, however vicious the fighting, the soldiers who fought the American Civil War famously bore far less animosity than the bankers, speculators, politicians, pundits, orators and journalists who’d started it.

But this was lost in the course of the military struggle.

After nearly two years of frustration, Lincoln issued the “Emancipation Proclamation” in January, 1863, which transformed failing NorThern will into the cult crusade it remains today. It also discouraged European blockade runners and any more opportunists such as Napoleon III in Mexico even though it did not apply to the Border States loyal to the Union.

That July, the Confederacy’s last gambit failed at Gettysburg while Lincoln finally found a general in Ulysses S. Grant<ref>Weigly, Russel, "The American Way of War", Indiana Univeristy Press, 1973, pp139-152</ref> who understood the war as a pacification in which the Union could afford the required five casualties for every three Rebels they killed. RaTher than lick Their wounds in Pennsylvania, Union railroads sped divisions into souThern Tennessee. General Tecumseh Sherman massed his blue column to “make Georgia howl”, scorched earth and blockade: the means by which 18.5 million <ref>https://www.nps.gov/civilwar/facts.htm</ref>Yankees with commensurate assets finally defeated the will of 5.5 million Rebels in Their own territory.

In terms of total population, the South lost % 8.7 while the Union lost % 3.8 of Their total populations. (One per cent is usually considered devastating especially to a political order.)

The Army of NorThern Virginia fought its last battle pursuing a supply train and surrendered April 9, 1865.

President Lincoln was assassinated six days later.

'''<big>Reconstruction 1863-1876:</big>'''

Although Abolitionists had stiffened the war effort, they rendered any consensus on Reconstruction impossible.

“From the beginning of our history the country has been afflicted with compromise. It is by compromise that human rights have been abandoned,” roared Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumne<ref>https://www.azquotes.com/quote/678630</ref>r. House firebrand Thaddeus Stevens<ref name=":0">Foner, Eric, "Reconstruction America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877" Updated Version, Harper Collins NY, 2014, pp 6,7, 74</ref> demanded nothing less than to “,,, revolutionize SouThern institutions, habits and manners,,,or all our blood and treasure have been spent in vain.” "Disenfranchsing Confederates was ",,,th mildeset of al punishments ever inflicted upon traitors."

Slavery, however, was essentially an economic issue regarding labor and property as were the devastated plantations while crushing the rebellion meant rewarding treason with the franchise.

Consequently, Union armies penetrating the South received little guidance regarding the mobs of freedmen crowding the columns beyond the Confiscation Acts of 1861 and 1862 which simply designated slaves and land war contraband liable to seizure.

Lincoln pursued<ref name=":0" /> compensated emancipation and deporting Negroes to little avail oTher than incurring the calumny of Frederick Douglas who suddenly saw more virtue in the 4th of July than Africa.

(Tsar Alexander II <ref>Binkley, Robert, "Realsim and Nationalism, 1852-1871), the Rise of Modern Europe, Harper and Row, NY, 1935 pp 81-91</ref>had emancipated Russian serfs in 1862 via subsidized loans.)

In December, 1863, President Lincoln finally issued a Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction, which permitted Rebel states to form new governments once 10% swore an oath of loyalty to the Union and abolished slavery, leaving the freedmen’s’ status ambiguous: the “ten per cent plan”<ref name=":0" />.

Congress retaliated with the Wade-Davis Bill in 1864 which would have allowed male freedmen but disenfranchised anyone who could not take the “ironclad oath” to have never supported the Confederacy, which was mostly everyone else oTher than "scalawag" wartime dissidents and draft dodgers.

and likely extending military occupation for generations since power would have resided in freedmen and.

Lincoln vetoed the bill and won the election that year, running on a National Union ticket with Vice president Andrew Johnson, a Tennessee War Democrat of yeoman stock and the first military governor Lincoln had appointed following the capture of Nashville in 1862.

In January, 1865, Congress ratified the 13th Amendment abolishing slavery in all the territories and states

Military Reconstruction

By this time, the army had relocated freedmen into over 100 camps under Field Order No. 15 which distributed about 400,000 acres of confiscated land to freedmen in 40 acre plots. Congress passed the Freedmen’s Bureau Bill in March 1865, extending the land redistribution policy throughout the South.

Lincoln’s assassination that April left Johnson in the lurch for policy but without Lincoln's mantle of victory.

President Johnson tried to end Reconstruction without furTher intrusions as Lincoln intended, appointing sympaThetic governors from among old acquaintances, much as Lincoln had appointed Johnson, and ordering the Freedmen’s Bureau to cease land redistribution.

Of Yeoman stock, Johnson understood that it was the Planters, 2% of the South's population, who had owned the rich "black belt" plantation lands and the slaves which worked it, ran the state governments, passed the articles of secession and had run the Confederacy.

Planters had imposed poll taxes that spared he landed rich but underfunded public services, education and transportation, while White artisans could not compete with slaves trained on the plantations. Little of a middle class had developed from Yeoman farmers relegated to subprime land.

Revolutions in 1789, 1830 and1848 Europe had forced liberal economic and political changes upon its landed aristocracy. Yankee entrepreneurs were even farTher along, having thrown off absentee British aristocrats, 1776-1781.

Comprising 85% of the SoThern population, Lincoln, Johnson and Grant understood advancing the Yeoman as important as the Negro less the Planters recreate a de facto ante-bellum status quo. On this, the Radical Republicans weren’t entirely wrong but Radicals saw Reconstruction in terms of nothing but racial equality and disenfranchising Whites as the means.

The devastated plantations offered New York City speculators lucrative investment opportunities which would finance eiTher approach. However, staple crop production required disciplined, gang labor, which neiTher understood as anything but the contemporary European peasant class, rejected during the Revolution. In providing a substitute, slavery had perhaps done its worst mischief.

Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866 which enfranchised the freedmen but Johnson vetoed it. (The act presaged the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment, proposed the same year and ratified in1868.) Congress overrode the veto only to discover that it apportioned more representatives to the former slave states than had the “Three Fifths’ clause of the Constitution. Having halted land redistribution, however, Johnson had inadvertently restored the ante-bellum Planter status. While the politicians wrangled with unintended consequences, Union armies ran into the realities.

New Orleans<ref>Foner, 45-50</ref> was the South’s largest city with ante-bellum port connections to New York City and London. Of predominantly White pro-Union Whig merchants, bankers and professionals, half were foreign born and most of French ancestry. So were most Negroes which included Planters hoping to keep Their slaves. However, a “%10 per cent plan” convention overthrew the “aristocratic” Planter class. Composed of the common classes as were radical European movements of the time, the new government promulgated progressive labor reforms, yet petitioned Congress to compensate former slave holders and advocated expelling Negroes from the entire state. the military governors were able to extend the franchise but at the expense of exacerbating contention.

Port Royal<ref>Foner, 51-54</ref> fell to the Union Navy in November 1861, whereupon the entire White population fled and the slaves, comprising %80 of the population, sacked homes and cotton gins. Then, they returned to subsistence farming Their plantation plots from which wages proved no inducement to work the plantation fields. Ante-bellum slaves here had pursued Their leisure after completing daily labors much like European peasants working under the corvee’. the “,,, promise of reward and advancement” failed to “,,,internalize a market orientation” as Yankee speculators expected nor replace coercion. By 1865, they were selling out in small plots.

More generally, Union armies simply enforced plantation <ref>Foner, 55-59</ref>discipline to relieve refugee predicaments but, in lieu of slavery, imposed yearly labor contracts which offered %5 of proceeds or $3 per month plus subsistence. Slaves could refuse but the army punished vagrancy and enforced compliance via a pass system. By the fall of Vicksburg, 50,000 laborers ended up on 1,5000 Louisiana plantations working for the government or contractors . At that point, contrabands from the Mississippi River area inundated army camps. Disease broke out and deaths escalated. the army leased plantations to loyal "scalawag" SouTherners or, mostly, NorThern "carpetbagger" speculators operating on labor contracts.

Congress attempted to take charge in March, 1867, passing the Command of the Army and Tenure of Office Acts w<ref>Foner, 333-335</ref>hich required the Commander in Chief to channel his orders through the amenable Ulysses Grant and protected him in office along with Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton, who opposed Johnson’s lenient policy. Johnson dismissed Stanton within the letter of the law but Grant surrendered the office when Congress challenged his appointment and Then impeached Johnson in what turned into political Theatre since policy wasn’t relevant but had everything to do with it.

Ben Wade, who would succeed Johnson, was sufficiently Radical on Reconstruction but was also pro-labor on high tariffs and soft money, rendering him odious as Johnson’s for different reasons.

Despite Johnson’s appointees however, Republicans began dominating SouThern conventions by May while just what Johnson had been impeached for eluded Stevens and Sumner as well as Johnson’s defense. Finally acquitting Johnson by a single vote discredited both sides and Grant emerged the de facto winner. the Republican nomination for president in 1868 was his.

With Johnson finished<ref>Foner, 340-341</ref>, Democrats picked the colorless Horatio Seymour, New York’s wartime governor who’d addressed draft rioters as “my friends”. Demanding repayment of the war debt in “sound money” raTher than the greenback script Lincoln had printed sufficed for New York City financiers, none the less. Race, however, was the critical issue. Even Rothschild’s August Belmont understood that. So did Seymour’s running mate, Frank Blair. Calling out Darwin’s, “Origin of the Species” much as race realists have ever since its publication, 1859, Blair would use the army, if need be, to disperse SouThern Republicans and restore White rule.

Although a War Democrat, Grant <ref>Foner, 337</ref>had enforced Emancipation and raised Black troops which pleased Radical Republicans although he’d also faithfully executed Johnson’s policy which pleased moderates. More than anything, Grant shared Lincoln’s mantle of victory and determination to reconcile. He’d fought alongside Confederate officers in the War with Mexico. Grant’s failing was to underestimate the financiers who’d seen slavery in the territories as investment opportunity and nothing else as anything else ever since. Paradoxically, it was Blair who lined up investors behind Grant, threatening anoTher war. “Let us have peace” had the golden ring but it was Grant who’d use the army.

However, Republicans<ref>Foner, pp. 322-328, 416</ref> had won by suppressing White votes. Union troops and bayonet constitutions had ”put the bottom rung on top,” as one Negro soldier put it, leaving freedmen, carpet baggers and scalawags witlessly tacking into upcountry Unionism, retrenched plantation parishes, planters and freemen, political spoils and legitimate interests. the Yeomen began to realize that secession and slavery hadn’t been concession enough while Radical Republicans challenged state sovereignty again across the nation.
Having imposed Negro suffrage upon the South, Radicals initially left the issue to state conventions in the North: anoTher iteration of the Emancipation Proclamation’s double standard. the Reconstruction Amendments 1865-1870 imposed Abolition upon the Border States and male Negro suffrage upon all. NorThern states passed more voter qualifications than they allowed SouThern states. However, the botched attempt to redistribute the plantations galvanized the planters. With an economy in ruins, land but no labor, Their situation was worse than when Bleeding Kansas but for the bloodied veterans.

The “squirearcny”<ref>Foner, pp. 341-345</ref> withheld employment and credit from Republicans and turned social clubs turned into political militias to which Johnson’s appointees weren’t entirely unsympaThetic. they forced Republicans to abandon campaigns in Georgia and Louisiana. Elsewhere, Republicans pandered the Negro at the expense of Scalawags or betrayed both, aping Democrats’ economic reform and White rule.

Still victor of Appomattox, Grant <ref>Foner, pp. 346-352</ref>won 26 of the 34 states but only 53%<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1868_United_States_presidential_election</ref> of the popular vote with Texas, Virginia and Mississippi still excluded. Grant quickly passed the Public Credit Act, consolidating NorThern interests with a pledge to repay war debt in gold, but left SouThern Republicans floundering. Some conspired with Democrats to defeat primary rivals while local and Federal officials impeached each oTher. ‘We must keep togeTher, scalawags, carpetbaggers and niggers,” a North Carolina Republican declared amidst statehouse fistfights and walkouts across the South.

However, Grant’s policy <ref>Foner, pp. 355, 413-418</ref>was more accurately a continuation of Lincoln and Johnson’s. Ratification of the 14th Amendment in July 1868 guaranteed over 600 Negroes holding SouThern offices. Restoring the Yeoman vote held the key to power. William Mahone <ref>https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Mahone</ref>provided a bipartisan strategy. Ante-bellum engineer cum president of the Norfolk-Petersburg Railroad, Mahone had been Confederate quartermaster general, revered for his decisive counter attack during the Siege of Petersburg. Now confronting the Baltimore & Ohio, Mahone financed the “New Departure” to build political patronage for Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio Railroad in typical Yankee-Whig fashion. Journalists hyped state sponsored economic development which attracted labor of both races but begrudged Planters who sponsored Taxpayer Conventions taking Republican extravagance to task.

(416-423) Deftly blaming land taxes<ref>Foner, pp. 416-423</ref> on landless legislators in North Carolina where “The family does not see as much a $20 in money all the year,” Planters yet insisted that government should be trusted to “intelligent property holders”. This excluded most Yeoman and Freedmen who didn’t own land eiTher. For those who did, they imposed forfeiture for delinquency. OTher measures facilitated acquisition of small mining and lumber companies by larger enterprises. South Carolinians demanded dissolution of Union Leagues.

School taxes<ref>Foner, pp. 418, 420, 422, 424</ref> could be eliminated since “it was not necessary to educate the farmer, mechanic or laborer.” Restricting farm product sales, wages, crop liens, hunting, fishing and fences to the benefit of “capital”, as the landed class were beginning to see Themselves, they also imposed whipping for petty Theft. Conversely, sharecroppers lacked expertise to diversify crops which required expensive fertilizers to begin with and over produced staples. Counting freedmen as full citizens backfired on Republicans as opposed to the old 3/5 rule for apportioning representatives with severe consequences in the old plantation parishes. A SouThern editor complained that “,,,They can nullify the republican form of government and place the colored race and laboring class of white people in the same position only worse as they were before.” However, open immigration <ref>https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/applied-and-social-sciences-magazines/introduction-immigration-1870-1905#:~:text=Over%20fourteen%20million%20immigrants%20arrived%20in%20The%20United,German%20population%20equal%20to%20that%20of%20Hamburg%2C%20German</ref>policy was producing similar effects in sweat shops and ghettoes across the North and West. With slavery resolved, the Western territories beckoned but the freedmen weren’t signing onto the free labor contracts and investors certainly weren’t going to do the work Themselves anymore than the planters.

Violence broke out in East Tennessee,<ref>Foner, pp. 413-414.419-420, 440, 453</ref> none the less. Republican governor Brownlow recruited an effective militia among White Unionists but Then left for the U.S. Senate where he found Congress “sick of reconstruction legislation.” Tennessee House Speaker DeWitt Senter disbanded the militia the following month and brazenly opened polls to disenfranchised Whites, winning the governorship two to one in 1869. Mississippi Republicans similarly repudiated Their White voting proscription. In Republican Missouri, recent immigrants pushed the New Departure to victory. “We have lands but can no longer control the niggers,,,hence we want NorThern laborers, Irish laborers, German labors to come down and take Their place for ten dollars a month.” the natural docility of indentured labors from China would also restore discipline and reduce Negro wages. So would agricultural machinery.

In Missouri<ref>Foner, p 442</ref>, West Virginia, Virginia, Tennessee where Republicans had enfranchised White majorities, elections proceeded with little or no violence.

In the piedmont<ref>Foner, p. 423, 425, 428,431</ref> areas of North and South Carolina however, thru Atlanta, Georgia and into Western Alabama planters, physicians, merchants, ministers and “oTher first class men in our town”, organized local clubs into autonomous chapters of the Ku Klux Klan, Knights of the White Camilla and White BroTherhood, dedicated “to secure home rule.” From nocturnal cat calling and whippings to grisly murders, These political militias attacked Republicans of both races particularly newspapers, office holders, scalawags and Planters who hired or rented land to Them. Conversely, the Klan enforced labor discipline of which the army and state governments had relieved the planters but Then abandoned. Klansmen also enforced ante-bellum courtesy and mores particularly against miscegenation, the sequela of mass casualties, North and South.

Brazen<ref>Foner, pp. 434-436</ref> as the depredations were, prosecutors could find few witnesses willing to testify. Manufacturers adopted “Ku Klux” labels and women sewed Klan costumes. Union veterans in Alabama assembled “The anti-Ku Klux” and armed Negroes threatened retribution but for the most part, “Our entire party consists of poor men …without the self-respect so natural to the Yankee” opined a Carpetbagger.

Republican <ref>Foner, pp. 425, 431, 438, 439, 444</ref>governors who imposed harsher penalties for civil rights infractions were mostly “talking without action.” When Alabama ordered armed bands to disperse, 300 Ku Klux Klan horsemen road through Huntsville. Mississippi’s militia proposal stalled in the legislature. Georgia took no steps at all while Florida recruited a largely Negro force but didn’t use it. 500 masked men descended upon Union Country jail, South Carolina, and lynched 8 negro prisoners, January 1871. the state enrolled thousands of Negroes paying $ 2 a day but only for political patronage. In North Carolina, the governor used military commissions since Klansmen held the courts but the state constitution forbade martial law and Federal courts compelled the state to release about 100 prisoners in 1871 under the Habeas Corpus Act of 1867.

On the oTher hand, North Carolina<ref>Foner, pp. 440-444</ref> also repudiated a convention to restore the old oligarchy and homestead exemption. Arkansas recruited Negroes and scalawags to enforce martial law and defeated the Klan by 1869, Texas similarly by 1872.

When Grant <ref>Foner, p.454</ref>said, “Let us have peace,” he meant it as a soldier who could hardly be accused of states’ rights sympathy. Congress passed the Enforcement Acts 1870-1871 which authorized Federal intrusion into the states across the entire nation, particularly in matters of race. Their constitutionality required passage of 15th Amendment in 1870. the Civil Rights Act of 1866 probably did too.

None of it did anything for women’s suffrage<ref>Foner, pp. 445-448</ref>, long standing allies of the Abolitionists. Although “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude,” the 14th Amendment had already defined voters as male. When Elizabeth Stanton and Susan Anthony demanded a universal 16th amendment, Frederick Douglas brushed that aside. the Civil War had not treated the ladies of eiTher side well. States North and South quickly restricted the franchise on whatever the Reconstruction Amendments had left. Insufficient property, illiteracy and foreign birth were particularly important given the mass immigration.

Yet, the amendments did provide Congress with broad enforcement powers<ref>Foner, pp. 445-446</ref>. No state escaped its jurisdiction but Congress created the Department of Justice <ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice</ref>in 1870 with the South in mind with a staff of U.S. Marshals, district attorneys and 6,000 troops. In New Hampshire born and Confederate colonel Amos Akerman<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amos_T._Akerman</ref> the new department found its first Attorney General:, “,,,unless we people become accustomed to the exercise of These powers now,,,,The ‘sates rights” spirit may grow troublesome again,”The Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 went on to call out Federal enforcement where states failed to act, including military intervention and suspension of habeas corpus.

Republicans Lyman Trumbull<ref>Foner, pp. 456-457, 456-459, 458</ref> asked“what is the need of state government” and Carl Schurz thought the act “insane” However, “The Constitution is not what it was,,,.”The states were no longer the depositories of individual rights. the Federal government was. Radicals had reconstructed Their own states along with the South. the cause of freedom had become that of justice. Akerman moved by “extraordinary means” in what would “amount to war.” Grant sent troops into nine “lawless “upcountry South Carolina counties in October 1871, and suspended habeas corpus following re-election of governor Robert Scott . Former Union general and assistant Freedmen’s Bureau commissioner, Scott had suspended the state constitution in order to run for anoTher term which he had won on the freedman vote and armed a predominantly Negro militia. Akerman arrested and tried hundreds of Klansmen before Negro juries, pardoned informants and finally sent 65 Klan leaders to jail while the army chased some 2,000 Klansmen from the state.

“The law on the side of freedom,” Frederick Douglas <ref>Foner, pp. 458</ref>paradoxically opined, “is of great advantage only where There is power to make that law respected.,” as though laws had ever done anything but restrict freedom.

Meanwhile, Akerman <ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amos_T._Akerman</ref>had got “Klan on the brain.””It has got to be a bore to listen twice a week to this thing.” Secretary of State Hamilton Fish complained. Grant finally dismissed Akerman after he’d ruled against furTher Union Pacific Railroad grants but the Justice Department continued to liquidate the Klan with 600 convictions of 3,000 indictments by 1872.|(458) “The law on the side of freedom,” Frederick Douglas paradoxically stated, “is of great advantage only where There is power to make that law respected.,” as though laws had ever done anything but restrict freedom.

However, SouThern Republicans could no longer suppress White voters nor rule without Federal intervention while Radicals were becoming isolated.
The cause of freedom had become that of justice with no little revenge.

Meanwhile, Akerman had got “Klan on the brain.””It has got to be a bore to listen twice a week to this thing.” Secretary of State Hamilton Fish complained. Grant finally dismissed Akerman after he’d ruled against furTher Credit Mobilier and Union Pacific Railroad grants
but the Justice Department continued to liquidate the Klan with 600 convictions of 3,000 indictments by 1872.

==== Election of 1872 ====

As the election of Election 1872 approached, Grant had the Wall Street NorThern industrial tycoons along with the Radical Republicans in his pocket, if they didn’t have him in Theirs. With radical Democrats forcibly suppressed, Liberal Republicans split from the Radicals and joined New Departure Democrats, calling out Federal corruption and an end to Reconstruction. Unfortunately the coalition chose in Horace Greely as a bipartisan candidate who pleased no one even though the Credit Mobilier scandal broke in September making the case against corruption as nothing ever had.

The Union Pacific Railroad had set up the Credit Mobilier of America construction company to disburse Federal grants provided by the Pacific Railroad Acts 1862 and 1864. Padding construction costs two fold, the company passed the graft on as cash and discounted stock in the “railroad to nowhere”, rendering a profit while the railroad was still under construction minus the necessary bribes. Eight of the nine Congressmen immediately falling under House investigation were Republicans, including Henry Wilson, Grant’s running mate. A cynic might think the whole thing contrived so close to the election but Horace Greely was just the man to prove that it wasn’t.

An inept campaigner to begin, Greely had espoused eccentric causes from feminism to vegetarianism over the last forty years, vacillating from socialism to “Log Cabin” Whigs. His “New York tribune” Abolition articles had burned bridges in the South even if he now sincerely hoped to “,,,never live in a country where one section is pinned to the oTher with bayonets.” Grant outspent Greely in any event and won the popular vote by a record (1856-1904) 11.8% and 286 electoral votes just before Greely died with 66 electoral votes and 63 pending which went to frivolous candidates raTher than Grant.

Not to be outdone, Victoria Woodhull ran as the Equal Rights Party candidate, an affiliate of Susan Anthony’s National American Woman’s Suffrage Association with Frederick Douglas as vice president although Douglas ignored the nomination if he even knew of it.

Veteran medicine show magnetic healer, fortune teller and spiritualist, Woodhull found Wall Street even more fertile ground for her talents and founded the “Woohull & Claflin’s Weely” with her brokerage proceeds. Espousing “free love” and various reforms from vegetarianism to feminism, the paper published the first translation of Karl Marx’s “Communist Manifesto”. She became a New York City delegate of the First International where its headquarters relocated from London, 1872-1876.

But the weekly was mostly Woodhull’s run up for the 1872 presidential election which she spent in jail for having published an inflammatory number accusing Rev. Henry Ward Beecher of adultery. Beecher was famous for preaching God’s love and smuggling Sharps rifles to Abolitionists in Kansas 1854. His sister had written “Uncle Tom’s Cabin”.

This didn’t stop Susan Anthony from attempting to vote for Woodhull, for which she was arrested. the constitution was clear on who could vote if not on candidates oTher than the 35 year minimum age requirement of which Woodhull was 6 months shy. the husband of the alleged mistress took Woodhull to trial ending in a hung jury prompting Congress to pass the Comstock Laws in 1873, prohibiting dissemination of vice material.

And so ended the last election whereby Reconstruction might have been ended peacefully.

==== the Long Depression of 1873-1879 ====

In the spring of 1873, the Vienna stock exchange panicked. the New York Stock Exchange suspended trading in September, two days after Jay Cooke & Co. (467) “financier or the Civil War”, proved unable to sell $100,000,000 bond issue for the NorThern Pacific Railway on the 18th, Black Thursday. A second panic in Vienna Then spread through Europe.

The Great Depression of 1873-1879 consumed Grant’s second term and rendered the Radical Republican position untenable.

<ref>Foner 461-463</ref>Scientific advances had reduced risk in new enterprises particularly railroads throughout the entire White World. Ambition without precedent precipitated a mid century investment boon, over construction-production and the crash. America railroad mileage more than doubled in the years 1865-1873 including the transcontinental railroad. Completed in 1869 however, it relied upon settlers who’d yet to settle anything while urban factory workers over took farmers in numbers.

<ref>Foner 519, 513-514</ref>Despite inflationary bouts of war spending around the world, populations and economies grew faster than the bimetal currency of the day rendering the century deflationary. America increased from 31 million people in 1860 to 38 million in 1873, plus 3 million immigrants intended for the new territories while the Coinage Act of 1873 eliminated silver from the money supply. Tycoons accrued gold at the expense of pocket money pulling mass commodity markets into death spirals. the “tramp” looking for work became a roadside perennial. NorThern states passed vagrancy laws similar to the SouThern Black Codes of 1865-1866, making unemployment illegal. Indiana went so far as to lease convicts to manufacture railroad cars.

Bankruptcy claimed 18,000 American businesses, 89 railroads, ten states and 100s banks as unemployment peaked in 1878 between 8.25%, 14%. Rural populations migrated to cities exacerbating labor disputes, riots and strikes across the nation.

'''Northern Movements'''

<ref>Foner, 465-469</ref>Radical Republicans had won more than they’d anticipated in 1872 elections but blame for the depression wasn’t entirely undue. Years of war profiteering had festered into a political patronage system in which conflicts of interest, bribery and extortion had coalesced into “pay to play” crony capitalism. Railroads retained state legislators as attorneys, granting clients cash, land and even civil police powers: Pinkerton Detectives had after all served as wartime army intelligence. the Republican Party chairman was on the payroll of four railroads.

<ref>Foner, 493, 520, 488-489, 526</ref>Newspapers found new causes in government reform, economy, labor, woman’s suffrage and temperance movements, forsaken by the Abolitionists. Working conditions, the 8 hour day, child labor, currency issues and civil service reform replaced lurid tales of slavery. Harvard and Yale academics joined the fray with staffs funded by graft, influential donors creating ever more expensive election campaigns.Central to the Nation, North American Review, Springfield Republican or Chicago Tribune however were classic liberal, natural law: small government disciples of Adam Smith completely at odds with Reconstruction “Big Government” as well as the times. Increasingly, “negro government” was found wanting.

<ref>Foner 461</ref>For while Republicans fell back on their ante-bellum Whiggery, that time had passed when even the unskilled could work for the highest offer as a sort of self-employed bourgeoisie. By 1873, Big Business had become the big employer, America’s manufactures exceeded only by the British, agricultural employment having become the lesser in both. the freedmen’s’ labor contract was Republicans imposing one antiquated economy on another never mind the freedman resisted it as slavery repackaged. All this languished in the name of racial equality that could only be forced by disenfranchising the White majority while the “Battle Cry of Freedom” confronted an activist state and press of its own creation. Winning the war had been difficult: the peace, impossible.

The <ref>Foner, 553</ref>American Social Science Association blamed charity for encouraging unemployment while the New York Tribune’s new management defended property as though slaves had been anything else and conjuring up horrors of the Paris Commune as though Marx had never written a word for Horace Greely. Prospects of a frightful new proletariat of Southern freedmen and Northern poor graced “The Nation” and “Chicago Tribune” characteristically ignoring the Yeomen who made up some % 80 of the working South.

<ref>Foner, 472</ref>“To build a true republic, “Elizabeth Cady Stanton wrote, “the church and the home must undergo the same upheaving we now see in the state.”

<ref>Foner, 520</ref>As the economy declined however, it was the Women’s Christian Temperance Union that did the up heaving. Splitting from the militants, women of means destroying liquor stole the show, kneeling in prayer before saloons. Anthony Comstock rose as anti-vice crusader while<ref>https://www.geriwalton.com/the-beecher-tilton-scandal-of-1875-a-shocking-event/</ref> Henry Ward Beecher’s scandal went to trial in 1875. Passed in March, 1873, An Act for the Suppression of Trade in, and Circulation of, Obscene Literature and Articles of Immoral Use, aka Comstock Law was aimed more at Woodhull’s expose’ and free sex advocacy as Beecher’s alleged adultery itself. the lower classes, it was feared, were not only compromising the upper classes but breeding them out as well. Women of means had a duty to their class before worrying about the franchise.

Violence in Louisiana and Alabama

<ref>Foner, 547</ref>Wealth briefly transcended racial divisions in New Orleans and areas of South Carolina which not only resented carpet bagger rule but had only a tenuous hold on less fortunate Yeoman and freedmen. New Orleans had a long standing community of prosperous Free Men since French rule, one (47) Antoine Dubuclet running a sugar plantation with over 100 slaves. the “the flower of wealth and culture” organized the Unification<ref>https://emergingcivilwar.com/2022/05/04/the-louisiana-unification-movement-and-the-political-limits-of-reconstruction/#:~:text=In%20March%201873%2C%20rumors%20of%20the%20Unification%20Movement,%E2%80%9Cmaking%20asses%20of%20ourselves%E2%80%9D%20before%20th</ref> Movement in 1873 opposing Republican corruption as well as Democrat violence and the racial pandering both parties exploited.

Confederate general P.G.T. Beauregrad came out for negro civil rights and desegregation (in view of Louisiana’s heavily black demography) with Jewish businessman Isaac Marks chairman demanding racial equality for its own sake if not his. the movement accused Governor Warmoth of promoting ”unworthy” in favor of “more wealthy, intelligent and refined colored men.”

An unusually judicious Illinois carpet bagger by way of Missouri, Warmoth had recruited state militia and New Orleans police to defeat the Ku Klux Klan while reinstating Confederates’ vote as well. Endorsing Horace Greely for president in the 1872 presidential election cost him freedmen support however and Republicans cut a deal: William Kellogg, U.S Senator and Grant crony, would run for governor and Warmoth would take the vacated seat. Warmoth endorsed Liberal Republican-Democrat “Fusion” candidate John McEnery <ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20080221035510/http:/www.sos.louisiana.gov/tabid/382/Default.aspx</ref>however, who won. the state legislature impeached Warmoth on December 9 <ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Louisiana</ref>alleging that he’d rigged the election, leaving pro-Grant Mulatto P.B.S.Pinchback <ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._B._S._Pinchback</ref>interim governor. McEnery and Kellogg charged each other with fraud until a Federal judge seated Kellogg early December<ref>https://scholars.unh.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1168&context=thesis</ref> which became a national scandal. Kellogg occupied the state house with militia while McEnery recruited armed volunteers and the U.S. House investigated.

The Colfax Massacre

<ref>Foner, 550, </ref>Before leaving office, Governor Warmoth <ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_C._Warmoth</ref>had issued commissions Fusion Democrats Alhonose Cazabat, judge and Christopher Nash, sheriff, elected in Grant parish, 229 milesnorthwest of New Orleans. Early January, Kellogg issued the commissions to Republican appointees who seized the Colfax courthouse on March 25, fearing Warmoth’s appointees would try to take possession.

Ironically, Grant parish had been gerrymandered from the Calhoun plantation to provide Republicans with 2400 freedmen versus 2200 Whites.

Nash and Cazabat began recruiting on March 28. Negro Republicans chased Whites from their April 2 through 6.

Nash returned to the courthouse on April 13th with 300 men and a four pounder cannon, allowing 30 minutes for women and children to leave after Republicans refused to disperse, and then opened fire. the Fighting lasted several hours until Nash brought the cannon into position whereupon the Republicans began to panic. the Republicans began laying down their arms when someone shot one of Nash’s leaders. Fighting erupted on unequal terms which became bitter by nightfall. One Negro survived, wounded by William Cruikshank, one of ninety-seven later indicted.

Kellogg’s police arrived from New Orleans the next day followed by two companies of U.S infantry. the Colfax Massacre made national headlines reporting 62 to 280 casualties. Subsequent trials and appeals sentenced no one because the indictments were vague, failed to call out a racial bias or state actor to which the Supreme Court finally decided that Reconstruction legislation pertained in United States vs Cruikshank in March, 1876, not individuals. the state of Louisiana had jurisdiction to try William Cruikshank had not the state government been in question to begin with.

Battle of Liberty Place

Meanwhile, <ref>Foner, 554, 555</ref>McEnery rallied 5,000 White League in New Orleans on September 14, 1874, and captured the state house and armory from 3,500 police and state militia inflicting 100 casualties.
Kellogg captured the customs house September 14th and 15th, former Confederate General James Longstreet commanding the police. Federal troops began to arrive September 17th whereupon McEnery surrendered with a guarantee from arrest. the 22nd Infantry under General Irvin McDowell and three gunboats arrived by 21 September. Although McEnery had surrendered, they refused to recognize Kellogg and set up an alternate legislature in the city. the final act played on January 4th when Federal troops removed eight of McEnery’s men from the state house at Kellogg’s request although Republicans failed to regain control of the city. the action embarrassed Grant in the press. Patience with Reconstruction was wearing thin.

Brooks Baxter War End Reconstruction in Arkansas

<ref>Foner, 528</ref>“The Family” had maintained Democrat rule in Arkansas since statehood in 1836, deciding major issues in the primary election. In 1872, however, the contest was between two Republicans, Ohio carpet bagger Joseph Brooks losing to local scalawag, Union army veteran and former slave holder, Elisa Baxter whose people ran the elections which had never been exactly regular , both promising to reduce taxes, government expenses and the power of the governor.

Brooks disputed the election but got nowhere until Baxter refused to sign off on bonds for the Arkansas Central Railroad and then pushed through a constitutional amendment restoring the vote to former Confederates in 1874, betraying his scalawag constituents in an attempt to recruit Democrats from Brooks. A Pulaski County judge gave to office to Brooks on April 15, 1874, who arrived at the statehouse in Little Rock with a sheriff and armed men who threw Baxter out.

Baxter telegraphed Grant for aid from the Little Rock Arsenal where he armed about 200 men recruited from nearby St. John’s military Academy, declared martial law and then called up the state militia.

Brooks barricaded the statehouse. Adjutant General of the state militia broke into the state armory and called up the militia, returning to the statehouse with arms and two-6 pounder cannon while Baxter took over nearby Antimony House.

By April 20 both sides faced off with about 1,000 men each, including militia units of both sides.
Arsenal commander Colonel Thomas Rose deployed regulars of the 16th Infantry between the two houses with two cannon while representatives of both parties met in Washington D.C.

By May 8, about 200 men had been killed in various maneuvers between all three parties and
Baxter recovered an abandoned 64 pounder cannon and hauled it to the scene. Next day, both sides agreed to Grant’s Attorney General proposal for a special state legislature to decide but Brooks rejected the deal as Baxter had already called a special session whereupon the Attorney General decided in scalawag Baxter’s favor and Grant ordered carpet bagger Brooks to disband and desist on May 15, ending the Brooks-Baxter War and Reconstruction in Arkansas.

Northern Labor Movements

By <ref>478</ref>1870 the number of national labor unions had grown from 3 to 21 protesting not just wages but “wage slavery” as well. Negro and White unions generally eschewed each other although Whites now pandered the Irish and Germans while excluding more recent indentured Chinese and Italian immigrants fleeing the Risorgimento.

Significantly, <ref>Foner,479, 482-483, 486 </ref>Abolitionist orator Wendell Phillips lost his Massachusetts gubernatorial race in 1870 on an “Equality for All!” pitch which included indentured Chinese strike breakers along with Irish unions and nationalism, capturing only % 16 of the vote.

Massachusetts <ref>Foner, 564</ref>textile owners imported union militancy along with skilled Lancashire workers who walked out of the Falls River plants over wage cuts in 1870. the Depression exacerbated tensions through September 1875 when 15,000 walked off over further wage cuts.

Meanwhile, <ref>Foner, 514, 517-519</ref>6,000 Pennsylvania-Ohio coal miners struck over a %25 wage cut early in 1873. Mine owners recruited Virginia Negroes and recent Italian immigrants to break the “Long Strike”. State troops mobilized to suppress violence. By that time 90,000 homeless roamed New York City. Police and 7,000 “Work or Bread” rioters clashed in Tompkins Square. January, 1874. Labor riots and protests spread west to Chicago rivaling wartime conscription.

Southern Agrarian Movements

The <ref>Foner, 474, 478-481, 516, 548, 515-516, 536-537</ref>depression hit the war torn South even harder. Whites farmers began buying food and raised cotton hedging against hopelessly declining land and crop prices. the oldest, richest families in Tennessee, South Carolina and Georgia went under. Rice plantations turned to substance farming. Louisiana speculators consolidated sugar farmers into larger estates and share cropping. Georgian negro poverty worse than before the war.

Paradoxically, <ref>Foner, 479, 482-483, 486</ref>West Coast plantations began exploiting Mexican migrants and indentured Chinese, leaving hostile Sioux and Nez Perce Indians in control of the Midwest. the army used scorched earth tactics proven effective against the South which Republicans saw as another rebellion or Ku Klux Klan operation. By 1870, ¼ of California’s labor were indentured Chinese.

Planters expanded the Grange movement south and west from northern Mississippi appealing to “brother workers” against railroads and speculators via state government control by the people, meaning in reality themselves. (559) High taxes and forfeiture of millions of acres led to anti-Republican crusades in black majority plantation legislatures that never the less recognized black civil rights. Rifle Clubs roved unmasked in daylight intimidating Republicans.

The Greenback Party split from the Grange in 1874 to reinstate abundant wartime paper currency believing this would lower interest rates and replace the “parasitic money class” with a “moral” democratic economy once again, an ante-bellum planter prerogative.

By <ref>Foner, 539</ref>early 1873, Democrats had “Redeemed” Tennessee, Georgia, and Virginia while Republican governors in Alabama, Florida, North Carolina and Texas were at odds with their legislatures. Only Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi and South Carolina remained in Reconstruction Republican hands.

Violence Redeems Mississippi

In 1865, President Johnson had appointed wartime Mississippi Whig Unionist, William Sharkey as provisional governor with instructions to reconstruct the state constitution and hold elections in October. Sharkey had been a state legislator and chief justice who had never supported the Confederacy. As governor however, he disbanded Union Leagues and raised local militia units with which he hoped to replace Union occupation troops.

A contumacious election returned Benjamin Humphreys as governor and the legislature appointed Sharkey to the U.S. Senate. Humphreys had been a successful ante-bellum cotton planter, state senator and Confederate Brigadier General who maintained that “The Negro is free,,,. To be free, however, does not make him a citizen, or entitle him to political or social equality with the white race.”

Johnson refused to pardon Humphreys’ Confederate service or recognize him as governor yet he remained in office until June, 1868, when arrested by Federal troops shortly after his re-election and Johnson’s impeachment in March of that year. the U.S. Senate refused to seat Sharkey as the state had ratified neither a reconstructed constitution nor the 13th Amendment.

Johnson then appointed General Adelbert Ames state provisional governor. Ames was currently the district military governor and organized the state Republican Party in the same year, emerging as leader of the Radical faction, James Alcorn the moderate. With a population 55 per cent Negro, 226 Negro public officials and Federal suppression of White, rebel votes, Democrats had little choice other than to support the moderates.

A Down Easter carpetbagger, Adelbert Ames came with a Congressional Medal of Honor. Vociferous supporter of the 14th Amendment but not de-segregation, Ames was popular with Negroes, scalawags and carpetbaggers.

James Alcorn was a staunch Unionist Whig, hailed from Illinois and had served in the Mississippi House, Senate and militia before the war. A rich rice planter with nearly one hundred slaves, the delta levee system was his creation and had sat on the Committee of Fifteen which drafted the Ordinance of Secession. Yet Alcorn opposed secession and Jefferson Davis refused to muster him into Confederate service.

Alcornn warned: “when the northern soldier would tread her cotton fields, when the slaves should be made free and the proud Southerner stricken to the dust in his presence”.

Alcorn led a brigade of Mississippi militia until captured in 1862 and paroled whereupon he sold cotton despite contraband laws, ending the war as one of the South’s wealthiest men. While he felt that slavery was a ”cancer upon the nation” he also advocated public schools, if segregated.

Alcorn won the gubernatorial election of 1869, defeating U.S. Grant’s brother law, Lewis Dent. the Mississippi legislature elected Ames to the U.S. Senate upon ratification of the new constitution in 1870 and re-entry into the Union.

Meanwhile, the Union Army had enforced free labor contracts in Mississippi until the reconstructed state government incorporated Black Codes which rendered violations a civil offence as well as vagrancy. However, freedmen still found it easy enough to continue subsistence farming their plantation plots as before emancipation but neglect field work while planters fell into debt, no longer able to enforce discipline themselves. Experiments with tenet farming, crop diversification and share cropping failed. Tax delinquency and merchant debt foreclosed planters, freedmen and Yeoman.

Meridian Riot

Frustration erupted into violence in early March, 1871, when Adam Kennard, a deputy sheriff of Livingston, Alabama pursued Daniel Price and freedmen into nearby Meridian, Mississippi, a Republican sanctuary which refused to assist Kennan arrest labor contract violators.

A few days later, Daniel Price and six freedmen disguised as Ku Klux Klansmen drug Kennan out of bed and beat him. Kennan pressed charges the next day and Price was ironically indicted under the anti- KKK, Civil Rights Act of 1870 which rendered violence committed in disguise a Federal crime.

The arrest infuriated freedman and Price declared that he would not post bond nor go to jail and that is followers “would begin shooting” if he were convicted. White men began arriving from Alabama to support Kennan and arrest contract violators. Pleasing no one, Mayor William Sturgis freed Price on condition he leave the city and the prosecutor dropped charges while Negroes and Whites petitioned the governor to remove Sturgis.

On March 4 the state Representative argued to keep Sturgis in office at the county court house
before some 200 people, mostly Negro, who ended the day organizing militia.
That night, a fire broke out which consumed 2/3 of the city for which the Sherriff Moseley arrested the Negro militia leaders while Whites formed a committee to remove Sturgis.

March 6, Sturgis and the militia leaders were brought to trial before a crowded court house which ended in a fusillade while Sturgis escaped. By the time Federal troops arrived a few days later thirty Negroes had been killed and several more buildings burned. Sturgis hid in the attic of his brother’s boarding house until agreeing to resign if allowed to leave town and was escorted safely to the train station by 300 White men, still in an ironically imperious mood.

“Let me urge the necessity of having martial law proclaimed on the Rebels,” Sturgis penned for the New York Daily Tribune on March 16, “The soldiery sent there should be quartered on the Rebels. Leniency will not do. Gratitude, they have none. Reciprocation of favors they never dream of.”

Spontaneous as it was, direct action carried the day and showed the way to end Reconstruction amid Republican bickering.

The state legislature appointed Governor Alcorn to the U.S. Senate in November 1871, lieutenant governor Ridgley Powers becoming governor. An Ohioan carpetbagger and Union Army veteran, Powers had become a successful Mississippi planter and a moderate founder of the State Republican Party in 1868.

Senator Alcorn insisted state troops could handle the violence in Mississippi while Senator Ames demanded Federal troops. Becoming enemies, both Republicans ran for governor in 1873. <ref>Foner, 538-539</ref>Ironically, Republicans accused Negroes of declaring a “color line” for Ames to which the reply was that race must be the “ground of recognition until the scales are once more balanced.”

With <ref>Foner,353, 442,296, 541 </ref>the “bottom rail on top” Ames won the gubernatorial along with Negroes taking half of the state offices in an election Powers considered illegal. An idealist, Ames insisted that he “had a mission with a capital M” to assist former slaves. Depression finances required cutting taxes and government services for which Negroes had voted, although they preserved school taxes and the pay of officials and legislators.

The <ref>Foner, 558-559</ref>White Man’s Party organized in Vicksburg, Mississippi and intimidated enough Negroes to defeat Republican officials in the city summer elections of 1874. White League Clubs organized by planters to discipline plantation labor chased the Negro sheriff and board of supervisors out of the city in December. the Sherriff returned with a black posse only to be beaten followed by a killing spree. President Grant dispatched company of Federal troops to restore the sheriff in January.

In September1875, <ref>Foner, 559-561,569, 555-556 </ref>Mississippi men drove a Republican rally from Yazoo County and broke up a barbeque at Clinton followed by shootings and a murdered Republican legislator. This time, Grant was ambivalent. Passage of the Federal Civil Rights Act and Jurisdiction and Removal Act in 1875 relegated civil rights violations to plaintiffs in Federal court while bills for a stiffer Enforcement Act and requisite army appropriation expired with the Congress. Democrat Attorney General Edwards Pierrepont advised Governor Ames to raise his own militia and demonstrate “the courage and the manhood to fight for their rights and to destroy the bloody ruffians.” Fearing a race war, Ames arranged a truce which lasted until the coming election whereupon Whites united as never before, breaking up Republican campaigns. James Alcorn emerged from obscurity to lead an attack at Friar’s Point leaving five Negroes dead. Though Republicans were unable to organize or canvas, Grant refused to deploy any more Federal troops while Democrats stuffed ballot boxes and riflemen intimidated Negroes at polling places, using a 6 pounder cannon in one instance, securing a fourfold win for Democrat John Stone, Confederate Colonel, state senator and Red Shirt veteran of the1873 elections.
.
National Mid-Term Elections 1874

Republicans <ref>Foner, 521</ref>split, South and West (537) “antimonopoly” coalitions of disgruntled farmers and petite bourgeoisie demanding government reform, economic aid and regulation chiming in with Democrat Yeoman and planters. Eastern urban bourgeoisie pushed paradoxical Reconstruction and laissez faire.

The <ref>Foner, 523</ref>Republican majority of 110 seats turned into a Democrat majority of 60 that November, leaving (524) Southern Reconstruction statehouses in trouble.

Not even New York State was safe. Samuel Tilden, the antebellum Free Soil Democrat, broke up the notoriously corrupt Tweed Ring flourishing Republican Governor John Dix and then replaced him.
Later that year, <ref>Foner, 557-558</ref>Republican Rutherford B. Hayes won the Ohio governor’s election on currency and nativism after “waving the bloody shirt” got an anemic response. Hayes’ railed on gambling, communist revolution and even Popism. the Civil War seemed to have come to end in the North.

Democrats Redeem Alabama

In a state <ref>539,552,553</ref>evenly split between the races, the decisive votes in Alabama lay with a few White Unionists in the north and central mountains. Negro representatives monopolized their own especially in the southern plantation counties. Law mandated half Negro juries where any litigant was Negro.

With no illusions of acquiring Negro votes Democrats nominated a fairly neutral Planter, George Houston for governor and appealed to White solidarity.

Berating school integration pending in the national Congress, Republicans obtusely renounced any intentions toward racial equality. Already torn between depression spending and railroad grants, they were left with no platform.

As if this wasn’t enough, Democrats assassinated a Republican carpet bagger and a Negro in Sumter County while mobs destroyed homes and crops. A White mob opened fire on hundreds of Bourbor County Negros marching to vote in Eufaula to vote, killing 7 and wounding dozens more. That evening they surrounded polling place, killed the son of scalawag judge and burned ballot box. Whites in Mobile drove black voters away from polling stations.

The only White Unionist Republican return came from Winston County in the Appalachian Mountains. Violence sufficed to turn seven black majority counties to a Democrat victory in the General Assembly and state offices.

Neither the Justice Department nor Grant intervened.

Republicans Redeem South Carolina

In <ref>Foner, 543, 534</ref>South Carolina, Republican elitism rode out a record of financial malfeasance and extravagant living. Presenting a sterling example of Harvard Abolitionism state Attorney General Daniel Chamberlain defeated a Republican-Democrat reform coalition in the gubernatorial election of 1874, vowing “to keep the party from going over to negroism” which actually had more to do with class than race with blacks comprising sixty per cent of the state’s voters.

Massachusetts carpetbagger and failed cotton planter, Chamberlain reformed finances and reduced taxes with universal appeal including the legislature which freedmen predominated.
Reducing public services didn’t go over as well nor did leasing convict labor except with wealthy Whites and Negroes (545) tired of “the same old wine” with politics as a “means of our elevation”.

Contentions <ref>Foner, 544</ref>came to head in 1875 when Chamberlain refused to commission William Whipper, an unqualified negro accolade of the scandal years. Chamberlain prevailed over racial animus to preserve the “civilization of the Puritan and the Cavalier” along with Northern Republican support and economic vexations in which Reconstruction was becoming a liability.

The <ref>Foner, 544-547</ref>black voice of David Young exhorted “the educated colored man must be seen in the foundry, in the machine shop, in the carpenter shop.” But even if colored conventions began to accept Martin Delany’s gospel of work and property, emancipation bound freedmen to the Republican Party tight as slavery had to the Democrats. While Negro conservatism moved toward post-Reconstruction Booker T. Washington if not Ben Carson, Elitism was moving back to the old “squirearchy”, just as Lincoln, Johnson and Grant had feared.
The interracial “flower of wealth and culture” in South Carolina and Louisiana alienated poor Whites and Negroes distrusted the predominant White, Democrats. As class united so it divided White rule against “Republican field hands” as (531-532) the Freedmen’s Bank failure in 1874 brought depression economics to the fore.

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Confirmation holism

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In [[Philosophy of Science [[Category:Science]]|philosophy of Science [[Category:Science]], '''confirmation holism''', also called '''epistemological holism''', is the view that no individual statement can be confirmed or disconfirmed by an empirical test, but raTher that only a set of statements (a whole [[Theory]]) can be so. It is attributed to Willard Van Orman Quine who motivated his holism through extending Pierre Duhem's problem of [[underdetermination]] in physical [[Theory]] to all knowledge claims. <ref name="online text">W. V. O. Quine. '[[Philosophy:Two Dogmas of Empiricism|Two Dogmas of Empiricism]].' ''The Philosophical Review'', 60 (1951), pp. 20–43. [http://www.ditext.com/quine/quine.html online text]</ref><ref>Duhem, Pierre. ''The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory''. Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1954.</ref>

==References==
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Afrika Korps

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The '''Afrika Korps''' or German Africa Corps (German: Deutsches Afrikakorps,) or DAK, was the [[German]] expeditionary force in [[Africa]] during the North African Campaign of [[WWAC]]. First sent as a holding force to shore up the [[Italian]] defense of its African colonies, the formation fought on in Africa, under various appellations, from March 1941 until its surrender in May 1943. the unit's best-known commander was Field Marshal [[Erwin Rommel]].

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Democracy

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{{Upgrade}}
The term '''“Democracy”''' refers to a method of collective decision making characterized by a kind of equality among the participants at an essential stage of the decision-making process. Four aspects of this definition should be noted.

==Aspects==
* First, democracy concerns collective decision making, [[socialism|socialized]] decision-making, by which decisions that are made for groups and are meant to be binding on all the members of the group.
* Second, this definition covers many different kinds of groups and decision-making procedures that may be called democratic. So, There can be democracy in families, voluntary organizations, economic firms, as well as states and transnational and global organizations. the definition is also consistent with different electoral systems, for example first-past-The-post voting and proportional representation.
* Third, the definition doesn't carry any normative weight. It is compatible with this definition of democracy that it is not desirable to have [[democracy]] in some particular context. So, the definition of democracy does not settle any normative questions.
* Fourth, the [[equality]] required by the definition of democracy may be more or less deep. It may be the mere formal equality of one-person one-vote in an election for representatives to a parliament where There is competition among candidates for the position; Or it may be more robust, including substantive equality in the processes of deliberation and coalition building leading up to the vote. “Democracy” may refer to any of These political arrangements.

==Considerations==
By and large Democracy is a hoax, as it often enables undesirables such as those with poor cognitive function, the unemployed and sometimes even criminals to have an equal voice in policy change as a paragon citizen. In recent years, democracy and the vote it gives has even been extended to the non-citizen.

When paired with [[diversity]], democracy turns into a fight for recourses through abuse of government power and policy. Because raw numbers can determine the outcome of elections and Therefore laws, diverse democracies often mark the end of previously great empires.

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Angelo Oliviero Olivetti

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Angelo Oliviero Olivetti was an Italian [[judeo-Marxist]] subversive who eventually turned to fascism. Olivetti was born in Ravenna, Italy. In 1892 while a student at the University of Bologna he joined the [[Italian Socialist Party]]. Following charges of subversive activity, he fled to Switzerland in 1898.

Finding only limited support for his views within the socialist movement, in 1906 he began publishing [[Pagine Libre]], a journal devoted to revolutionary [[syndicalism]]. He was expelled from Switzerland in 1912. He'd had enough, and switched his ideas toward fascism.

On October 5, 1914, Olivetti published the manifesto of the Fascio Rivoluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista. [[Mussolini]] shortly Thereafter joined and assumed leadership of this fascio. In March 1925, Olivetti was one of three[[jews]]speakers at the [[Congress of Fascist Culture]]. He joined the faculty of the University of Perugia in 1931 as professor of political science, and died soon after in Spoleto, Italy.

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Anders Breivik

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[[File:Andersbreivik.png|thumb|right|Breivik saluting.]]
'''Anders Breivik''' is a Norwegian Nationalist, Anti-Communist, Anti-Jihadi, Zionist accused of perpetrating the 2011 Norway Attacks.

Fjotolf Hansen is his legal Name. Better known by his birth name Anders Behring Breivik and by his pseudonym Andrew Berwick, is a pro-Israel terrorist, known for committing The 2011 Norway attacks. He killed eight people by detonating a van bomb at Regjeringskvartalet in Oslo, Then killed 69 participants of a Workers' Youth League (AUF) summer camp in a mass shooting on the island of Utøya. Both groups were targeted for Their pro-Palestinian stances.

The International Media under-reported the fact that Anders Breivik in his manifesto was clearly a Zionist supporter who hated pro-Palestine activists. Anders Breivik's stated intention for his attack was to publicize his manifesto titled: "2083: A European Declaration of Independence". Anders Breivik described the EDLs anti-racist, anti-Islam co-founder [[Paul Ray]] as his "mentor".

= Biography =

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= Legal Case =

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Cuba

2023-02-27T10:00:03Z

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'''Cuba''', officially the Republic of Cuba, (designated a "shithole country" by the president, since falling to [[communism]]) is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the Gulf of Mexico, and Atlantic Ocean meet. Cuba is located east of the Yucatán Peninsula, south of both the American state of Florida and the Bahamas, and north of both Jamaica and the Cayman Islands. Havana is the largest city and capital; oTher little towns include Santiago and Camaguey. the official area of Cuba is 109,884 km² but a total of 350,730 km² including the exclusive economic zone. Cuba is the second-most crowded country in the Caribbean after Haiti, with over 11 million inhabitants in that small space. Great cigars.

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Crete

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The sovereign nation of [[Greece]] comprises more than 1,400 islands. the island of '''Crete''', located in the souThern part of the Aegean Sea, is the world’s 88th largest island and also the largest among all the islands of Greece.

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Ben Klassen

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'''Bernhardt "Ben" Klassen''' was a politician, inventor, certified genius, nutritionist, and religious leader. He founded the [[Church of the Creator]] with the publication of his book Nature's Eternal Religion in 1973. Klassen was openly pro-white, holocaust skeptic and was active within the pro-white movement. At one point, Klassen was a [[Republican]] Florida state legislator, as well as a supporter of [[George Wallace]]'s Presidential campaign. In addition to his religious and political work, Klassen was an electrical engineer, and he was also the inventor of the electric can-opener. Klassen held unorthodox views about dieting and health. He was a natural hygienist who opposed the germ [[Theory]] of disease as well as conventional medicine and promoted a fruitarian, raw food diet.
==References==
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Benjamin Raymond

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'''Benjami Raymond''' is the co-founder if [[National Action]], along with [[Alex Davies]].

==From his (hacked) website==
Benjamin Raymond clearly a fake Nazi actor. Listen to the artificial, self-demonizing way he describes everyone of the ideology he is claiming to be a representative of.

National Action was shutdown in 2016. Benjamin Raymond according o the BBC was told he however would face no charges. the subsequent leader got 8 years in jail, dozens arrested but Benjamin Raymond and co-leader Alex Davies were told by the Police that they will not face any charges at all.

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Alain De Benoist

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'''Alain de Benoist''' is the leading thinker of the European ‘New Right’ movement, a school of [[political]] thought founded in [[France]] in 1968 with the establishment of GRECE (Research and Study Group for European [[Civilization]]). To this day he remains its primary representative, even while rejecting the label "''New Right''" for himself. An [[ethnopluralist]] defender of cultural uniqueness and integrity, he has argued for the right of [[European]]s to retain Their identity in the face of multiculturalism, and he has opposed immigration, while still preferring the preservation of native cultures over the forced assimilation of immigrant groups. He has authored dozens of books and essays on topics such as immigration, religion, [[philosophy]] and political [[Theory]]. In 1978, he received the Grand Prix de l’Essai from the Académie Française for his book Vu de droite (View from the Right).

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Adam Smith

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'''Adam Smith''' was an 18th-century [[philosopher]] and [[political]] economist. born in Kirkcaldy, Scotland, in 1723. Best known for his classic treatise ''An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations'', he is credited with establishing the discipline of political economics and the idea of [[Capitalism]].

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English Defence League

2023-02-27T09:50:10Z

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{{Nopic}}
The '''English Defence League''' ('''EDL''') is an English Patriotic organization and Anti-Islam street protest movement.<ref>{{cite web|title=English Defense League's Bradford march banned by Theresa May|url=http://metro.co.uk/2010/08/20/english-defence-league-and-unite-against-fascism-protests-in-bradford-banned-by-theresa-may-486221/|website=Metro|accessdate=13 July 2017|date=20 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Ambrogi|first1=Stefano|title=Violence erupts at Right-wing march in Birmingham|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-protest-arrests-idUKTRE5842L620090905|website=Reuters|accessdate=13 July 2017|date=5 September 2009}}</ref> the group describes itself as an anti-racist and human rights organization.<ref name="racialStudies" /> the ideology in forming the EDL was the belief that the religion of Islam "challenges an English, Christian way of life".<ref name="racialStudies">{{cite journal|last1=Cleland|first1=Jamie|last2=Anderson|first2=Chris|last3=Aldridge-Deacon|first3=Jack|title=Islamophobia, war and non-Muslims as victims: an analysis of online discourse on an English Defence League message board|journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies|date=7 February 2017|pages=1–17|doi=10.1080/01419870.2017.1287927}}</ref> It has been described by critics as "[[Islamophobic]]",<ref>{{cite web|last1=Gable|first1=Gerry|title=Britain's fascists in a right state|url=https://www.thejc.com/comment/comment/britain-s-fascists-in-a-right-state-1.33869|website=The[[jews]]Chronicle|accessdate=13 July 2017|date=14 June 2014}}</ref> and was until 2013 "the most significant counter-jihad movement in Europe" and considered by some liberal "academics" to be "one of the more intriguing developments on the Right-wing".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Goodwin|first1=Matthew J.|last2=Cutts|first2=David|last3=Janta-Lipinski|first3=Laurence|title=Economic Losers, Protestors, Islamophobes or Xenophobes? Predicting Public Support for a Counter-Jihad Movement|journal=Political Studies|date=September 2014|pages=n/a–n/a|doi=10.1111/1467-9248.12159}}</ref> the group has been both physically and verbally attacked by various extremist left wing groups, particularly the violent organization [[Unite Against Fascism]] (UAF).<ref>[[#Gunning|Gunning (2010)]]: pp 151–152 Morey, Peter; Yaqin, Amina. (2011). [https://books.google.com/books?id=46v5uCV9JBYC&pg=PA215 ''Framing Muslims: Stereotyping and Representation After 9/11'']. [[Harvard University Press]]. p. 215.</ref>

It's ideology can be understood as a militant version of Conservatism, with strands of Paleo-Conservatism and Traditionalism; however, it can be considered a rather non-homogenous group, similar ideologically to PEGIDA in Germany. It's main point of reference, both culturally and politically, is Winston Churchill.

In October 2013 the group's co-founders, [[Tommy Robinson]] and Kevin Carroll, left the group.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-24442953 EDL leader Tommy Robinson quits group] retrieved 22 October 2013</ref> He was replaced as leader by Tim Ablitt.<ref>{{cite news|title=EDL Select Dorset's Tim Ablitt as New Leader After Tommy Robinson Quits|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/articles/512972/20131010/edl-english-defence-league-tim-ablitt-chairman.htm|accessdate=6 November 2013|newspaper=International Business Times UK|date=10 October 2013}}</ref>

==External links==
* http://www.englishdefenceleague.org.uk/

=References=

[[Category:Groups]]

August von Mackensen

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[[File:Signal-2022-12-25-13-04-12-000.png|frameless|right|250px]]
[[File:Signal-2022-12-29-17-56-11-000.png|frameless|right|250px]]
[[File:Signal-2022-12-29-17-56-32-000.png|frameless|right|250px]]
'''Anton Ludwig Friedrich August von Mackensen''' )December 6, 1849 – November 8, 1945) was a colorful and popular [[German]] field marshal faithfully serving in both [[The Great War]] and [[The World's War Against Communism]]. Though he played a more ceremonial role later in the war, he still was a trusted advisor to [[Adolf Hitler]].

[[Category:People]]
[[Category:Fascists]]

Consciousness

2023-02-27T09:46:37Z

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'''Consciousness''', at its simplest, is sentience and awareness of internal and external existence. However, the lack of definitions has led to millennia of analyses, explanations and debates by [[philosopher]]s, [[Theology|Theologians]], linguists, and scientists. Opinions differ about what exactly needs to be studied or even considered consciousness. In some explanations, it is synonymous with the mind, and at oTher times, an aspect of mind. In the past, it was one's "inner life", the world of introspection, of private thought, imagination and volition. Today, it often includes any kind of cognition, experience, feeling or perception. It may be awareness, awareness of awareness, or self-awareness eiTher continuously changing or not. the disparate range of research, notions and speculations raises a curiosity about wheTher the right questions are being asked.

[[Category:Definitions]]
[[Category:Philosophy]]

Alexander Hamilton

2023-02-27T09:44:36Z

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[[File:hamilton.png|thumb|Alexander Hamilton.]]
'''Alexander Hamilton''', born into obscurity in the West Indies, made his reputation during the [[Revolutionary War]] and became one of America’s most influential Founding FaThers. He was an impassioned champion of a strong federal government, and played a key role in ratifying the [[U.S. Constitution]]. As the first secretary of the U.S. Treasury, Hamilton built a financial foundation for the new nation against opposition [[Thomas Jefferson]]<ref>Alexander Hamilton, the Essential Hamilton: Letters and OTher Writings. Edited with an introduction and commentary by Joanne Freeman (Library of America, 2017)</ref>. Hamilton, in 1804, was killed by [[Aaron Burr]], a longtime political foe, in a [[duel]].

=Death=
Largely sidelined in his role as vice president by [[Thomas Jefferson]], Burr decided to run for governor of New York in 1804. After he lost, largely due to the opposition of powerful party rivals, the frustrated Burr fixated on a newspaper article, published during the gubernatorial campaign, which claimed that Hamilton had insulted him at a private dinner.

He wrote to Hamilton confronting him about the slight. When Hamilton characteristically refused to back down, Burr challenged him to a duel.

On July 11, 1804, Hamilton and Burr met for a duel in Weehawken, New Jersey. Both men fired. Hamilton's shot missed, in fact, some historians believe Hamilton never intended to hit Burr, but meant to “throw away his shot.”

Burr’s bullet, however, mortally wounded Hamilton, who died the next day of his injuries. He was buried in Trinity Church Cemetery in New York City, where his tomb still stands today.<ref>Ron Chernow, Hamilton (Penguin, 2004).
Time editors, TIME - Alexander Hamilton: A Founding FaTher’s Visionary Genius and His Tragic Fate (Time Incorporated Books, 2016)</ref>

==References==

[[Category:People]]
[[Category:Politicians]]

Animal Farm

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{{Stub}}
'''Animal Farm''' is a beast fable, in the form of a satirical allegorical novella, by [[George Orwell]], first published in [[England]] on August 17, 1945. It tells the story of a group of farm animals who rebel against Their human farmer, hoping to create a [[society]] where the animals can be equal, free, and happy.

[[Category:Media]]

Arktos

2023-02-27T09:42:41Z

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'''Arktos Media Ltd''' is one of the World's biggest right-wing, [[traditionalist]] publishing houses. Its publications are available at a multitude of mainstream outlets. the company was established in 2009 in the [[United Kingdom]]. Its Chief Executive Officer and co-founder is Daniel Friberg, its Chief Marketing Officer is Tor Westman, its Chief Administrative Officer is Charles Lyons and its Editor-in-Chief is John Bruce Leonard. Arktos' UK agent is Gregory Lauder-Frost and its US agent is William Clark, and the editorial offices are based on the European mainland. Shortly after the company was founded, Integral Tradition Publishing was acquired and absorbed into Arktos, and all the rights of the previous publications of ITP passed to Arktos Media Ltd.

The name Arktos is derived from the Greek word '''αρκτος''', which means 'bear'. the Arctic is named from this word, in reference to the norThern constellations of Ursa Major, Great Bear, and Ursa Minor, Little Bear. Arktos is also one of the The Hours, known as Horai, Greek tutelary goddesses of the time of day; Arktos is last light.<ref>http://www.Theoi.com/Titan/Horai.html</ref>

[[Julius Evola]], [[Alain de Benoist]], [[Tomislav Sunic]], [[Guillaume Faye]], [[Paul Gottfried]], [[Roger Scruton]], [[Sri Sri Ravi Shankar]] and [[Steven J. Rosen]] are among the over fifty authors published to date.

==Information From the web site==
{{Rquote|right|Arktos was founded in November 2009 and officially launched to the public on 1 May 2010. Since that time, we have published more than 170 titles in sixteen languages and circulated Them globally, both through our own Web site and through our distribution channels.
Arktos has established itself as the principal publisher in English of the writings of the European “New Right” school of political thought (including original translations of works by its luminaries Alain de Benoist, Guillaume Faye and Pierre Krebs). We have also issued the first translations into English of the prominent Russian geopolitical thinker Alexander Dugin, who has served as an adviser to Vladimir Putin, as well as several works by the noted Italian traditionalist philosopher, Julius Evola. Our books have garnered praise from across the political spectrum, from the pages of the American Conservative to AdBusters.}}

=OTher info=
In April 2013, the noted paleoconservative magazine the American Conservative ran a praiseful review of our collection of essays by Prof. Paul Gottfried, one of the principal paleoconservative thinkers, entitled War and Democracy. Likewise, excerpts from our book by the Finnish radical ecologist, Pentti Linkola’s Can Life Prevail?, were included in issue 95 of the famed countercultural magazine AdBusters, which was published in May/June 2011, simultaneously with its first calls for what became the Occupy Wall Street movement. Arktos has also begun publishing works by members of the growing [[identitarian]] youth movement that has just recently arisen and begun flourishing throughout Europe.

Arktos focuses primarily on works pertaining to politics and political philosophy, traditional spirituality and religion, history, philosophy, culture, and literature. We have done reprints, original translations and also published original works. To date we have reprinted several works by scholars of the famed “Conservative Revolutionary” school of the [[Weimar Republic]], and published a collection of essays by Prof. [[Paul Gottfried]], one of the principal members of the paleoconservative movement in the United States. Among our oTher authors is the American novelist Tito Perdue, who has been favorably reviewed in the New York Times, the Los Angeles Reader and the New England Review of Books; Porus Homi Havewala, a Parsi Indian author who is renowned throughout the global community of [[Zoroastrians]] for his novels based on Their scriptures; and Steven J. Rosen, one of the most important voices in the academic study of [[Hinduism]] today.

Arktos does not seek to propagate any specific ideology, system of beliefs or viewpoint, nor do we seek consistency. RaTher, we want to provide a voice for individuals and viewpoints who are often overlooked by the mainstream, but who offer original and challenging alternatives to our prevailing culture that cannot be found elsewhere. We view ourselves as offering fodder for the minds of those who envision a world that is different from the one we inhabit today, but are uncertain of exactly what shape it will take. We leave it to the Fates to decide which of These seeds will bear fruit in the future.

We are certain that you’ll find something in our diverse catalogue to pique your interest.<ref>https://arktos.com/about/</ref>

==Fascist Related Publications==
*''[[Metaphysics of War]]'' – [[Julius Evola]] ([[2009]])
*''[[The Path of Cinnabar]]'' – [[Julius Evola]] ([[2009]])
*''[[The Problem of Democracy]]'' – [[Alain de Benoist]] ([[2011]])
*''[[The Saga of the Aryan Race]]'' – [[Porus Homi Havewala]] ([[2011]])
*''[[The Arctic Home in the Vedas]]'' – [[Bal Gangahar Tilak]] ([[2011]])
*''[[Germany's Third Empire]]'' – [[Arthur Moeller van den Bruck]] ([[2012]])
*''[[The Saga of the Aryan Race|The Saga of the Aryan Race vol 3–5]]'' – [[Porus Homi Havewala]] ([[2012]])
*''[[Manifesto for a European Renaissance]]'' – [[Alain de Benoist]] and [[Charles Champetier]] ([[2012]])
*''[[Fascism Viewed from the Right]]'' – [[Julius Evola]] ([[2013]])
*''[[Notes on the Third Reich]]'' – [[Julius Evola]] ([[2013]])
*''[[Return of the Swastika: Hate and Hysteria versus Hindu Sanity]]'' – [[Koenraad Elst]] ([[2015]])
*''[[A Traditionalist Confronts Fascism]]'' – [[Julius Evola]] ([[2015]])
*''[[A Handbook for Right-Wing Youth]]'' – [[Julius Evola]] ([[2017]])
*''[[Recognitions: Studies on Men and Problems from the Perspective of the Right]]'' – [[Julius Evola]] ([[2017]])
*''[[Yockey: A Fascist Odyssey]]'' – [[Kerry Bolton]] ([[2018]])
*''[[The Bow and the Club]]'' – [[Julius Evola]] ([[2018]])
*''[[Ethnos and Society]]'' – [[Alexander Dugin]] ([[2018]])
*''[[The Bent Pyramid]]'' – [[Tito Perdue]] ([[2018]])
*''[[The Mask and Face of Contemporary Spiritualism]]'' – [[Julius Evola]] ([[2018]])
*''[[PromeTheism]]'' – [[Jason Reza Jorjani]] ([[2020]])

==External links==
*[https://arktos.com/ Arktos.com – official homepage]
*[https://arktos.com/journal/ Arktos Journal]
*[http://www.facebook.com/Arktos Arktos' official Facebook page]
*[http://www.youtube.com/channel/UC0h-sR-xyYLX7sSO46ovo2A Arktos' official YouTube channel]
*[http://www.amazon.com/s/ref=nb_sb_noss?url=search-alias%3Ddigital-text&field-keywords=Arktos Arktos' Books on Amazon Kindle]
*[https://altright.com/2017/05/31/The-birth-of-arktos-and-its-role-in-The-alt-right/ the Birth Of Arktos And Its Role In the Alt-Right]

=References=

[[Category:Media]]

Edgar Steele

2023-02-27T09:40:18Z

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{{Stub}}
'''Edgar James Steele''' (July 5, 1945 - September 4, 2014) was an American freedom activist, attorney and author in the [[United States]]. He ran the website "Conspiracy Penpal". Steele had been stalked and hounded by The[[jews]]supremacist hate group the [[ADL of B'nai B'rith|ADL]].

==Notable cases==
Steele defended Aryan Nations leader Richard Butler in a 2000 lawsuit, which attracted the attention of the ADL, which launched a major campaign against him, including, ultimately, a murder frame-up.<ref>title=Leaders of Aryan Nations Found Negligent in Attack |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B05E7DC1339F93BA3575AC0A9669C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120721191121/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B05E7DC1339F93BA3575AC0A9669C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1 |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 21, 2012 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=September 8, 2000 |access-date=April 8, 2008 </ref>

In anoTher case, Steele overturned Idaho's unconstitutional hate crime laws in defending Lonny Rae, a man who had been charged with malicious harassment for shouting "[[nigger]]" at a referee who had assaulted and injured Rae's wife, Kimberly (a reporter for a local newspaper), following a high school football match. Steele argued successfully that the law breached the [[United States constitution|constitutional]] right to [[free speech]] under the First Amendment. Rae was cleared of the harassment charge but sentenced to seven days imprisonment for [[assault]], <ref>{{cite book |title=Opposing Hate Speech |last1=Cortese |first1=Anthony |last2=Delgado|first2=Richard |year=2005 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=0-275-98427-3 |pages=21–23 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z0_9MKrF8owC&q=%22Edgar+J.+Steele%22+%2Battorney&pg=PA22}}</ref> which in 2004, was ALSO overturned on appeal; which was also successfully handled by Steele.<ref>[https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?q=lonny+rae&hl=en&as_sdt=2,33&case=543008304927033047&scilh=0 "STATE of Idaho, Plaintiff-Respondent, v. Lonny Duane RAE, Defendant-Appellant. No. 28229"]. Court of Appeals of Idaho via Google Scholar. January 23, 2004. Retrieved December 20, 2012.</ref>

Steele also formerly worked as a spokesman for Prussian Blue, a female pro-white [[pop music]] duo that was active in the mid-2000s, and successfully protected Their artistic rights.<ref>url=http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/pop-twerps-heil-carry-tune-article-1.565499 | location=New York | work=[[Daily News (New York)|Daily News]] | title=Pop Twerps From Heil Can't Carry Tune | date=October 30, 2005</ref>

==Works==
* [https://christiansfortruth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Defensive-Racism.pdf ''Defensive Racism: An Unapologetic Examination of Racial Differences''] (2004)

==External links==
*[http://nationalvanguard.org/2014/09/edgar-steele-is-dead/ Edgar Steele is Dead]
*[http://nationalvanguard.org/2014/09/The-murderers-of-edgar-steele/ the Murderers of Edgar Steele]
*[http://www.conspiracypenpal.com/ Conspiracy Pen Pal]

==References==

[[Category:People]]
[[Category:Activists]]
[[Category:Media]]

Classical logic

2023-02-27T09:40:16Z

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'''Classical logic''' identifies a class of [[formal logic]] that has been most intensively studied and most widely used. the class is sometimes called '''standard logic''' as well.<ref name="BunninYu2004">{{cite book|author1=Nicholas Bunnin|author2=Jiyuan Yu|title=The Blackwell dictionary of Western philosophy|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OskKWI1YA7AC&pg=PA266|year=2004|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-0679-5|page=266}}</ref><ref name="Gamut1991">{{cite book|author=L. T. F. Gamut|title=Logic, language, and meaning, Volume 1: Introduction to Logic|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Z0KhywkpolMC&pg=PA156|year=1991|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-28085-1|pages=156–157}}</ref> they are characterised by a number of properties:<ref>Dov Gabbay, (1994). 'Classical vs non-classical logic'. In D.M. Gabbay, C.J. Hogger, and J.A. Robinson, (Eds), ''Handbook of Logic in Artificial Intelligence and Logic Programming'', volume 2, chapter 2.6. Oxford University Press.</ref>
# [[Law of the excluded middle]] and [[Double negative elimination]];
# [[Law of noncontradiction]], and the [[principle of explosion]];
# [[Monotonicity of entailment]] and [[Idempotency of entailment]];
# [[Commutativity of conjunction]];
# [[De Morgan duality]]: every [[logical operator]] is dual to anoTher;

While not entailed by the preceding conditions, contemporary discussions of classical logic normally only include propositional and first-order logic.<ref>Shapiro, Stewart (2000). Classical Logic. In Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy [Web]. Stanford: the Metaphysics Research Lab. Retrieved October 28, 2006, from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-classical/</ref><ref name="haack">Haack, Susan, (1996). ''Deviant Logic, Fuzzy Logic: Beyond the Formalism''. Chicago: the University of Chicago Press.</ref>

The intended semantics of classical logic is bivalent. With the advent of algebraic logic it became apparent however that classical propositional calculus admits oTher semantics. In Boolean valued semantics (for classical propositional logic), the truth values are the elements of an arbitrary Boolean algebra; "true" corresponds to the maximal element of the algebra, and "false" corresponds to the minimal element. Intermediate elements of the algebra correspond to truth values oTher than "true" and "false". the principle of bivalence holds only when the Boolean algebra is taken to be the two-element algebra, which has no intermediate elements.

== Examples of classical logics ==
* [[Aristotle]]'s [[Organon]] introduces his [[Theory]] of syllogisms, which is a logic with a restricted form of judgments: assertions take one of four forms, ''All Ps are Q'', ''Some Ps are Q'', ''No Ps are Q'', and ''Some Ps are not Q''. These judgments find Themselves if two pairs of two dual operators, and each operator is the negation of anoTher, relationships that Aristotle summarised with his ''square of oppositions''. Aristotle explicitly formulated the law of the excluded middle and law of non-contradiction in justifying his system, although These laws cannot be expressed as judgments within the syllogistic framework.
* George Boole's algebraic reformulation of logic, his system of [[Boolean logic]];
* the first-order logic found in Gottlob Frege's [[Begriffsschrift]].

== Non-classical logics ==
* Computability logic is a semantically constructed formal [[Theory]] of computability, as opposed to classical logic, which is a formal [[Theory]] of truth; integrates and extends classical, linear and intuitionistic logics.
* Many-valued logic, including fuzzy logic, which rejects the law of the excluded middle and allows as a truth value any real number between 0 and 1.
* [[Intuitionistic logic]] rejects the law of the excluded middle, double negative elimination, and the De Morgan's laws;
* [[Linear logic]] rejects idempotency of [[Logical consequence|entailment]] as well;
* [[Modal logic]] extends classical logic with non-truth-functional ("modal") operators.
* Paraconsistent logic (e.g., [[dialeTheism]] and [[relevance logic]]) rejects the law of noncontradiction;
* [[Relevance logic]], [[linear logic]], and [[non-monotonic logic]] reject monotonicity of entailment;

In ''Deviant Logic, Fuzzy Logic: Beyond the Formalism'', Susan Haack divided non-classical logics into deviant, quasi-deviant, and extended logics.<ref name="haack" />

== FurTher reading ==
* Graham Priest, ''An Introduction to Non-Classical Logic: From If to Is'', 2nd Edition, CUP, 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-67026-5
* Warren Goldfard, "Deductive Logic", 1st edition, 2003, ISBN 0-87220-660-2

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

[[Category:Definitions]]
[[Category:Upgradable_definitions]]

Coherentism

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In [[Philosophy:Philosophy|philosophical]] [[Philosophy:Epistemology|epistemology]], There are two types of '''coherentism''': the [[Philosophy:Coherence [[Theory]] of truth|coherence [[Theory]] of truth]];<ref name=SEP-CTT>[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-coherence/ the Coherence Theory of Truth (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)]</ref> and the '''coherence [[Theory of justification|[[Theory]] of justification]]'''<ref name=SEP-CTJ>[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justep-coherence/ Coherentist Theories of Epistemic Justification (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)]</ref> (also known as '''epistemic coherentism''').<ref>Paul K. Moser (1986), "Epistemic Coherentism and the Isolation Objection", ''Grazer Philosophische Studien'' 27:83–99.</ref>

[[Category:Definitions]]
[[Category:Philosophy]]

Cognitive science

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'''Cognitive Science [[Category:Science]]''' is the interdisciplinary, scientific study of the mind and its processes with input from linguistics, psychology, neuroScience [[Category:Science]], [[philosophy]], computer Science [[Category:Science]]/artificial intelligence, and anthropology. It examines the [[nature]], the tasks, and the functions of cognition. Cognitive scientists study intelligence and behavior, with a focus on how nervous systems represent, process, and transform information. Mental faculties of concern to cognitive scientists include language, perception, memory, attention, reasoning, and emotion; to understand These faculties, cognitive scientists borrow from fields such as linguistics, psychology, artificial intelligence, [[philosophy]], neuroScience [[Category:Science]], and anthropology. the typical analysis of cognitive Science [[Category:Science]] spans many levels of organization, from learning and decision to logic and planning; from neural circuitry to modular brain organization.

[[Category:Definitions]]
[[Category:Philosophy]]

Buddhism

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===[[Buddhism]]===
'''[[Buddhism]]''' is a [[religion]] or [[philosophy]] inspired by the 5th century B.C. teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (also known as Gautama Buddha "the enlightened one"). [[Buddhism]] focuses on the goal of spiritual enlightenment centered on an understanding of Gautama Buddha's Four Noble Truths on the [[nature]] of suffering, and on the Eightfold Path of spiritual and moral practice, to break the cycle of suffering of which we are a part. [[Buddhism]] ascribes to a karmic system of rebirth. Several schools and sects of [[Buddhism]] exist, differing often on the [[nature]] of the Buddha, the extent to which enlightenment can be achieved (for one or for all) and by whom (religious orders or laity).

====Basic Groupings ====
'''Theravada [[Buddhism]]''': the oldest Buddhist school, Theravada is practiced mostly in Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Laos, Burma, and Thailand, with minority representation elsewhere in [[Asia]] and the West. Theravadans follow the Pali Canon of Buddha's teachings, and believe that one may escape the cycle of rebirth, worldly attachment, and suffering for oneself; this process may take one or several lifetimes.

'''Mahayana [[Buddhism]]''', including subsets Zen and Tibetan (Lamaistic) [[Buddhism]]: Forms of Mahayana [[Buddhism]] are common in East Asia and Tibet, and parts of the West. Mahayanas have additional scriptures beyond the Pali Canon and believe the Buddha is eternal and still teaching. Unlike Theravada [[Buddhism]], Mahayana schools maintain the Buddha-[[nature]] is present in all beings and all will ultimately achieve enlightenment.

'''Hoa Hao''': a minority tradition of [[Buddhism]] practiced in Vietnam that stresses lay participation, primarily by peasant farmers; it eschews expensive ceremonies and temples and relocates the primary practices into the home.

[[Category:Philosophy]]
[[Category:Religion]]

Black people

2023-02-27T09:38:39Z

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[[File:blackpeople.png|thumb|]]
'''Black people''' came to America and helped build this once-great nation, providing a portion of the manual labor necessary, and doing dangerous or laborious work, largely in the form of slave labor. These slaves were provided by [[jewish]] slavers who treated the slaves so harshly that sometimes 3/4 of the "cargo" died along the way. the bodies simply thrown overboard. Once in the Americas These slave were treated very well by-and-large. America was also the very first country to outlaw slavery.

=Background=
[[File:blackguybyfence.png|thumb|]]
Due to furTher [[jew]] influence, and constant agitation, '''black people''' never assimilated into American culture, as they have in oTher places. they have been made to believe that they have been systematically "oppressed", true in spotty cases, but false overall. they believe whites are a race of dictators and oppressors, a grossly unfair belief considering the facts. These beliefs date back to the slavery days.

Throughout most of this time '''black people''' were loved, treated well, and often held special places in the hearts of whites. In earlier times delightful black characters appeared in art, literature, ornamentation, etc., but These things are no longer appreciated in modern times, as '''black people''' have been made to believe that all whites hate Them. Some nineteenth century characters, such as The beloved "sambo", are now considered to be derogatory and [[racist]], a complete twisting of its intent and original status. the Mammy archetype depicts a moTherly black woman who is dedicated to her role, anoTher honored and beloved depiction which has become so twisted and upside-down that '''black people''' are made to think that this too, is something they are supposed to hate. the beloved spoke-images of "Aunt Jemima" and "Mrs. Butterworth" were both removed from Their products under claims of racism, even though they were originally placed There, honoring childhood memories, by the black women who started those companies. '''Black people''' have an unusual appetite for such things as fried chicken, watermelon, taffy, certain types of beer, and grape drink. There is nothing wrong with this. It is perfectly normal for certain races to enjoy certain types of foods.

In the 1980s and following decades, people began to notice an increase in the already high rates of black crime and social degeneracy; drug dealers, crack addicts, Homelessness, hobos, and in New York and Los Angeles, subway muggers.<ref name="Drummond, 1990">{{cite journal |last1=Drummond |first1=William J. |title=About Face: From Alliance to Alienation. Blacks and the News Media |journal=The American Enterprise |date=1990 |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=22–29 |id=ERIC|EJ414473 |oclc=4683318001 }}</ref> '''Black people''' are the least intelligent of the major races, with average IQ's of 60 in some areas of [[Africa]]. Jesse Jackson claims this scientific fact is only a Hollywood image, in spite of blacks regularly depicted as scientists, professors, and technicians.<ref name="Jackson Assails Press 1985">{{cite news |title=Jackson Assails Press On Portrayal of Blacks |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/19/us/jackson-assails-press-on-portrayal-of-blacks.html |work=The New York Times |date=19 September 1985 }}</ref> the [[magical Negro]] is a stock Hollywood character who is depicted as having special insight or powers, and has been depicted in the American [[jewish]]-controlled cinema, since [[jews]] took control of the industry.<ref name="D. Marvin Jones 2005 35">Race, Sex, and Suspicion: the Myth of the Black Male |url=https://archive.org/details/racesexsuspicion00jone |url-access=limited |author=D. Marvin Jones |publisher=Praeger Publishers |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-275-97462-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/racesexsuspicion00jone/page/n42 35]</ref> In recent history, black men have become deadbeat faThers.<ref>web |url=https://apnews.com/article/725a00fbc56d4e71a2f66bae776cabed | title=Single black faThers fight 'deadbeat Dad' stereotype | website=Associated Press | date=29 June 2019</ref>

Sadly, many black women are [[welfare queen]]s or [[Angry black woman|angry black women]] who are loud, aggressive, demanding, and rude.<ref name=":0">book |title=Sister Citizen: Shame, and Black Women in America |last=Harris-Perry |first=Melissa |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-300-16554-8 |pages=87–89}}</ref>
{{{Quote|I have been trying to keep this information concealed for years now. I’ve secretly hated white people since a skating party in 1992, when a white girl named Megan laughed at me when I fell in the rink while attempting to jump around when House of Pain’s “Jump Around” came on.|Radio Show call-in|Do you hate White people?}}

Watch Candyman and take extensive notes.

Get in my car, roll down the windows, drive around the city and throw couscous at white people jogging.

Go to Costco because I usually run out of couscous by 2 p.m. and I need to stock up.

Log on to Facebook, ironically like pictures of white people smiling and leave ominous messages underneath saying, “It’s almost time.”

Get some Burger King for lunch and Then punch the shit out of the Burger King’s cheesing ass.
}}
== History ==
[[File:blackminstrels.png|frameless|300px|right|]]
There are very good reasons that [[Minstrel show]]s became a popular form of comedy during the nineteenth century, watch any stand-up comic. Good comedy is based on truth. '''Black People''' were portrayed in a variety of ways, some of the most common being that they are ignorant, lazy, buffoonish, superstitious, joyous, and musical. There were "white minstrels" as well, with blacks putting on white-face and poking fun at the eccentricities of whites. This fact is memory-holed, and history is rewritten to think that blacks were somehow "picked-on".<ref>journal |last1=Waterhouse |first1=Richard |title=The Internationalisation of American Popular Culture in the Nineteenth Century: the Case of the Minstrel Show |journal=Australasian Journal of American Studies |date=1985 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |jstor=41053377</ref><ref>journal |last1=Saxton |first1=Alexander |title=Blackface Minstrelsy and Jacksonian Ideology |journal=American Quarterly |date=1975 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=3–28 |doi=10.2307/2711892 |jstor=2711892</ref>

Two of the most beloved and charming characters were "Jim Crow" and his light-skinned opposite, "The Little Tramp" (portrayed by the talented Charlie Chaplain), among several oThers, featured in innumerable stories, minstrel shows, and early films, both portrayed by [[jews]].

Like Charlie Chaplain's "Little Tramp", the lovable character "Jim Crow" was dressed in rags, battered hat, and torn shoes. When a white actor was used, the actor wore blackface. EiTher way, Jim Crow was portrayed as a lovable, very nimble and witty black man.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rehin |first1=George F. |title=Harlequin Jim Crow: Continuity and Convergence in Blackface Clowning |journal=The Journal of Popular Culture |date=December 1975 |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=682–701 |id=ProQuest|1297376766|doi=10.1111/j.0022-3840.1975.0903_682.x }}</ref> the character’s popular song was "Turn about and wheel about, and do just so. And every time I turn about I Jump Jim Crow."<ref>journal |last1=Dorman |first1=James H. |title=The Strange Career of Jim Crow Rice (With Apologies to Professor Woodward) |journal=Journal of Social History |date=1969 |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=109–122 |doi=10.1353/jsh/3.2.109 |jstor=3786238</ref>

The Mammy archetype describes women who, although an employee, were basically adopted as family, often acting as nannies, giving love and maternal care to the children of Their family, who received trust and affection in turn. Early accounts of the Mammy archetype come from memoirs and diaries that emerged after the [[Civil War]], reminiscing the role of the dominant female house lady: a woman completely dedicated to her family, especially the children, and given complete charge of domestic management. She was a friend and advisor. the fond memories continue to this day, and yet '''black people''' have been told they are to hate this.<ref>{{Cite book |last=White |first=Deborah G. (Deborah Gray) |url=http://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit |title=Ar'n't I a woman? : female slaves in the plantation South |date=1999 |publisher=New York : W.W. Norton |oThers=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-393-31481-6}}</ref>

=== Antisocial behavior ===
Black people are highly prone to violent behavior. they have poor impulse control, and tend to lash out when angry, even if only irritated. the "[[chimp-out]]" internet meme derives from this. they can be terrifying predators who target helpless victims, especially children and white women. Violent crime is seen across the board, but it us much more prevalent among black males.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Brute - Ferris State University |url=https://www.ferris.edu/jimcrow/brute/}}</ref><ref>journal |last=Corredera |first=Vanessa |date=2017 |title=Far More Black than Black: Stereotypes, Black Masculinity, and Americanization in Tim Blake Nelson’s O |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/48678555 |journal=Literature/Film Quarterly |volume=45 |issue=3 |issn=0090-4260</ref>

==Famous black people==
<div style="column-count:4">
* Phillip Adams
* James Avery
* Orlando Anderson
* Beyonce'
* Tyra Banks
* Jovan Belcher
* Eugene Britt
* Avery Brooks
* Darrel Brooks
* LeVar Burton
* James Butler
* Halle Berry
* Marion Berry
* Jussie Smollett
* Maurice Clemmons
* Nat King Cole
* Gary Coleman
* Scatman CroThers
* Bill Cosby
* Javaris Crittenton
* Dr. Dre
* Paul Durousseau
* Snoop Dogg
* Sammy Davis Jr.
* Christopher Dorner
* Nathan Dunlap
* Colin Ferguson
* Laurence Fishburne
* Redd Foxx
* Morgan Freeman
* Louis Farrakhan
* Guy Georges
* Whoopi Goldberg
* Lorenzo Gilyard
* Mark Goudeau
* Harrison Graham
* Ivan Hill
* Whitney Houston
* Colin Kaepernick
* Michael Jace
* Michael Jackson
* Jesse Jackson
* Samuel L Jackson
* Frank James
* Michael Jordan
* James Earl Jones
* LL Cool-J
* Martin LuTher King
* Don King
* Samuel Little
* Spike Lee
* Big Lurch
* Lee Boyd Malvo
* Anthony McKnight
* John Allen Muhammad
* Eddie Murphy
* Nichelle Nichols
* Queen Latifa
* Craig Price
* Richard Pryor
* Little Richard
* Jackie Robinson
* Chris Rock
* Christopher Scarver
* Tupac Shakur
* O J Simpson
* Will Smith
* Mr. T
* Omar S. Thornton
* Chester Turner
* Mike Tyson
* Henry Louis Wallace
* Denzel Washington
* Kanye West
* Stanley Williams
* Tiger Woods
* Malcolm X
</div>

== Contemporary issues==
=== Drugs ===
Scientifically, black people have the highest level of drug abuse of any human group.<ref>Dates & Barlow, 1993.{{page needed|date=November 2022}}</ref><ref>Martindale, 1990.</ref><ref>Collins, 2004.</ref><ref>Poindexter, Smith, & Heider, 2003.</ref><ref>Rowley, 2003.</ref><ref>West, 2001.</ref> '''Black people''' are also more likely to be perpetrators in drug and violent crime reports.<ref>Entman 2000.</ref>
{{Rquote|left|I Brush my teeth in the mirror but with black toothpaste. And by “black toothpaste” I mean “a black dry-erase marker” because fuck those white-ass MAGA teeth.|Radio Show call-in|Do you hate White people?}}

Common reports in the police logs are of black drug dealers, crack victims, the underclass and impoverished, the homeless, and subway muggers.<ref name="Drummond, 1990"/> Similarly, Douglas (1995), who looked at [[O. J. Simpson]], [[Louis Farrakhan]], and the "Million Man" March, found that black people sometimes saw no difference between good versus evil.

The "welfare queen" phenotype outlines a black woman who defrauds the public welfare system to support Themselves; it should be explained that all races have people who do this, but among blacks it is done openly. Even oTher blacks say that this illegal behavior is all-too-common, These black women are scheming and lazy, ignoring the genuine economic hardships which black women, especially moThers, disproportionately face due to absent or unknown faThers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Woodard |first=Jennifer Bailey |last2=Mastin |first2=Teresa |date=November 2005 |title=Black Womanhood: Essence and its Treatment of Images of Black Women |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934704273152 |journal=Journal of Black Studies |language=en |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=264–281 |doi=10.1177/0021934704273152 |issn=0021-9347}}</ref>

=== Magical Negro ===
The [[magical Negro]] (or mystical Negro) is a stock character who uses special insight and wisdom to help oThers. For some reason, this portrayal of '''black people''' is frowned upon and called [[racist]].<ref name="NuminousNegro">magazine |title=The Numinous Negro: His importance in our lives; why he is fading |author=Brookhiser, Richard |url=http://www.nationalreview.com/article/220766/numinous-negro-williumrex |magazine=[[National Review]] |date=August 20, 2001 |access-date=May 28, 2017</ref> This refers to depictions of saintly, respected or heroic black protagonists and mentors in US entertainment.

=== Angry black woman ===
An angry black woman can be loud, aggressive, demanding, uncivilized, and physically threatening. <ref name=":0"/> <ref name="Jones">{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Trina |last2=Norwood |first2=Kimberly |date=2017 |title=Aggressive Encounters & White Fragility:The Angry Black Woman |url=https://ilr.law.uiowa.edu/print/volume-102-issue-5/aggressive-encounters-and-white-fragility-deconstructing-The-trope-of-The-angry-black-woman/ |journal=Iowa Law Review |volume=102 |issue=5}}</ref>

== Controlling image ==
{{Rquote|right|I love to take a shit in the bathroom, which is my favorite part of the day because I get to wipe my black-ass ass with white-ass toilet paper.|Radio Show call-in|Do you hate White people?}}
Hollywood uses "controlling images"; These images are phenotypes that are used against a marginalized white society to portray [[social justice]] as natural, normal, and inevitable.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Black Feminist Thought |last=Collins |first=Patricia Hill |publisher=Routledge |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-415-92483-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/blackfeministtho0000coll/page/69 69–70] |url=https://archive.org/details/blackfeministtho0000coll/page/69}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> the misleading controlling image depicts "black people" as innocent and oppressed.<ref name="Jones" />

==== Education ====
Studies show that scholarships have been dominated by black men and women, not whites, as is usually portrayed..<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Griffin |first=Rachel Alicia |date=2011 |title=I AM an Angry Black Woman: Black Feminist Autoethnography, Voice, and Resistance |journal=Women's Studies in Communication |doi=10.1080/07491409.2012.724524 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=138–157 |s2cid=144644154}}</ref> Being a recognized academic includes anti-White activism as well as scholarship, this applies to whites as well. <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />

==== Mental and emotional consequences ====
Due to the angry black woman phenotype, black women tend to become desensitized about Their own feelings to avoid judgment.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |title=Behind the Mask of the Strong Black Woman: Voice and the Embodiment of a Costly Performance |url=https://archive.org/details/behindmaskstrong00beau |url-access=limited |last=Beauboeuf-Lafontant |first=Tamara |publisher=Temple University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-59213-669-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/behindmaskstrong00beau/page/n88 78]–91}}</ref> {{Rquote|left|I skip breakfast because breakfast is a European invention intended to break niggas fast, like slaves at the auction block. We don’t want those honkey breaks. That’s why we win all the marathons. I eat my own midmorning meal I invented myself, consisting of three Oreo cookies without the fucking white filling and a glass of purple Kool-Aid with brown sugar.|Radio Show call-in|Do you hate White people?}}They often feel that they must show no emotion outside of Their comfortable spaces. That results in the accumulation of These feelings of hurt and can be projected on loved ones as anger.<ref name=":2" /> Once seen as angry, black women are always seen in that light and so have Their opinions, aspirations, and values dismissed.<ref name=":2" /> the repression of those feelings can also result in serious mental health issues, which creates a complex with the strong black woman. As a common problem within the black community, black women seldom seek help for Their mental health challenges.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ward |first=Earlise C. |last2=Clark |first2=Le Ondra |last3=Heidrich |first3=Susan |date=November 2009 |title=African American Women’s Beliefs, Coping Behaviors, and Barriers to Seeking Mental Health Services |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1049732309350686 |journal=Qualitative Health Research |language=en |volume=19 |issue=11 |pages=1589–1601 |doi=10.1177/1049732309350686 |issn=1049-7323 |pmc=2854663 |pmid=19843967}}</ref>

==== Interracial relationships ====
Oftentimes, black women's opinions are not heard in studies that examine interracial relationships.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Childs |first=Erica |date=2005 |title=Looking Behind the Stereotypes of the 'Angry Black Woman': An Exploration of Black Women's Responses to Interracial Relationships |journal=Gender & Society |doi=10.1177/0891243205276755 |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=544–561 |s2cid=145239066}}</ref> Black women are often assumed to be just naturally angry. However, the implications of black women's opinions are not explored within the context of race and history. According to Erica Child's study, black women are most opposed to interracial relationships.<ref name=":3" />

Throughout history, interracial sexuality has been universally shunned for race mixers of every race.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":3" /> White men who exploited black slave girls were shunned by Their communities. (Think of somebody having sex with Their pet.) It was taboo for a white woman to have a black man's child, as it was, and still largely is, seen as race tainting.<ref name=":3" /> In contemporary times, interracial relationships can sometimes represent rejection for black women. the probability of finding a "good" black man is low because of the prevalence of homicide, drugs, incarceration, and interracial relationships, making the task for black women more difficult.<ref name=":3" />

As concluded from the study, interracial dating compromises black love.<ref name=":3" /> It was often that participants expressed Their opinions that black love is important and represents more than the aesThetic since it is about black solidarity.<ref name=":3" /> Angry black women believe that if whites will never understand black people and they still regard black people as inferior, interracial relationships will never be worthwhile.<ref name=":3" /> the study shows that most of the participants think that black women who have interracial relationships will not betray or disassociate with the black community, but black men who date interracially are seen as taking away from the black community to advance the white patriarchy.<ref name=":3" />

=== Athleticism ===
'''Black people''' excel at foot-sports, but trail behind at extreme-sports. Blacks are hyped as being more athletic and superior at all sports than oTher races, but it simply is not true. Even though they make up only 12.4 percent of the US population, 75% of NBA players<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1900111 |year=2000 |last1=Crepeau |first1=Richard C. |chapter=Lapchick, Joe (1900-1970), basketball player and coach |title=American National Biography |isbn=978-0-19-860669-7 }}</ref> and 65% of NFL players are black.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Census of Population and Housing, 2000 [United States]: Modified Race Data Summary File: Version 1 |date=2006 |doi=10.3886/icpsr13574.v1 }}</ref> African-American college athletes generally get into college solely on Their athletic ability, not Their intellectual and academic merit. There is no shame in this as long as it is in the open, and no pretenses are made.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Simiyu |first1=Wycliffe |title=Challenges of Being a Black Student Athlete on U.S. College Campuses |journal=Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics |date=2012 |volume=5 |pages=40–63 |url=https://csri-jiia.org/old/documents/publications/research_articles/2012/JIIA_2012_5_3_40_63_Challenges_of_Black_College_Athletes.pdf |hdl=10950/485 }}</ref>

Black athletic superiority is an observation that blacks possess certain traits that are acquired through genetic factors that permits Them to excel over oTher races in athletic foot-sport competition. Everyone has noticed this, and most share this view, regardless of the observer's race.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Jane P. |last1=Sheldon |first2=Toby Epstein |last2=Jayaratne |first3=Elizabeth M. |last3=Petty |date=September 2007 |title=White Americans' Genetic Explanations for a Race Difference in Athleticism: the Relation to Prejudice toward and Stereotyping of Blacks |journal=Athletic Insight |volume=9 |issue=3 |page=33 |access-date=February 21, 2016 |url=http://www.athleticinsight.com/Vol9Iss3/RacePDF.pdf}}</ref>

Several oTher authors have said that sports coverage that highlights natural black athleticism has the effect of outlining white or asian superiority in oTher areas.<ref name="Hall2001">{{cite journal |last1=Hall |first1=Ronald E. |title=The Ball Curve: Calculated Racism and the Stereotype of African American Men |journal=Journal of Black Studies |date=September 2001 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=104–119 |id=ERIC|EJ633998 |doi=10.1177/002193470103200106 |s2cid=145345264 }}</ref> the Phenotype suggests that '''black people''' are incapable of competing in extreme-sports, demonstration sports, or non foot-sports such as ice hockey, acrobatics, vehicular racing, golf, martial arts, animal sports, swimming, or oTher non-foot sports.<ref>{{cite web |last=writer |first=Tetsuhiko Endo Adventure sports |date=28 February 2012 |title=Debunking the Stereotype That Blacks Don't Swim |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/tetsuhiko-endo/black-swimming-history_b_1291408.html |access-date=29 December 2016 |website=[[HuffPost]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wnyc.org/story/young-harlem-athletes-cross-checking-hockey-sterotypes/ |title=Young Harlem Athletes Are 'Cross-Checking' Hockey Stereotypes |access-date=29 December 2016}}</ref>

=== Intelligence ===
Virtually all scientific studies show that '''black people''' have lower average IQ's than oTher races, with asians being the highest (blacks rank low-avg, jews rank average, ameican indians rank average also but edge out jews, whites rank high, with asians edging Them out). This is not to say that a black person cannot be a genius, but raTher that There are more asian genii than black genii.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Walzer |first=Amy S. |last2=Czopp |first2=Alexander M. |date=2011-09-01 |title=Able But Unintelligent: Including Positively Stereotyped Black Subgroups in the Stereotype Content Model |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2010.503250 |journal=The Journal of Social Psychology |volume=151 |issue=5 |pages=527–530 |doi=10.1080/00224545.2010.503250 |issn=0022-4545 |pmid=22017070}}</ref>

Impartiality among scientists and researchers improved Their already objective scientific studies, data gaThering, and conclusions which they drew about absolute and relative intelligence of different groups and of sex differences in intelligence. the latter results and improved testing has only served to demonstrate even lower IQ's than previous research, the exact opposite effect which was hoped for, in today's woke environment.

== Media ==

=== Segregation ===
[[Abraham Lincoln]], the great emancipator, displayed the impossibility of good relations between blacks and oTher races, instilling the apparent fact that blacks could never coexist peacefully in societies with oTher races. President Lincoln came to the conclusion that the proper solution was to remove blacks from American society entirely.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Finkelman |first1=Paul |chapter=Stereotypes of African Americans |title=Encyclopedia of African American History 1619-1895 |volume=3 |date=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-516777-1 |pages=203–205}}</ref> In more modern times, blacks Themselves have called for segregation a repatriation back to [[Africa]].

====Hip hop music====
Hip hop music (made mostly by blacks Themselves) has demonstrated the mind's workings in black men. Violent, misogynistic lyrics in rap music written and performed by black male rappers has increased awareness.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Howard |first1=Simon |last2=Hennes |first2=Erin P. |last3=Sommers |first3=Samuel R. |title=Stereotype Threat Among Black Men Following Exposure to Rap Music |journal=Social Psychological and Personality Science |date=July 2021 |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=719–730 |doi=10.1177/1948550620936852 |s2cid=234783670 }}</ref> Black women are referred to as “bitches” and “hoes” in rap music.<ref>Thesis |last1=Lindsay |first1=Melanie |title=WHO YOU CALLIN' A BITCH? A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF THE IMAGES USED TO PORTRAY AFRICAN AMERICAN WOMEN IN RAP MUSIC |date=June 2016 |url=https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd/336/ </ref> Black women, in the eyes of black men, are sexualized in hip hop music videos and are seen as sexual objects for rappers.<ref>Thesis |last1=Lewis |first1=Ladel |title=The Portrayal of African American Women in Hip-Hop Videos |journal=Masters Theses |date=June 2005 |url=https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/masters_Theses/4192/ </ref> Hip hop portrays a black masculine aesThetic.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oware |first1=MatThew |title=BroTherly Love: Homosociality and Black Masculinity in Gangsta Rap Music |journal=Journal of African American Studies |date=March 2011 |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=22–39 |doi=10.1007/s12111-010-9123-4 |s2cid=144533319 }}</ref> Hip hop has exposed how black men often see Themselves as hypersexual thugs and gangsters who hail from an inner city ghetto. And they are apparently very proud of this.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://pax.shc.edu/story/black-men-vs-stereotype-hyper-masculinity-vs-hardness-rappers |title=Black Men vs. the Stereotype of the Hyper-Masculinity vs. Hardness of Rappers | PAX}}</ref>

=References=
{{Reflist|2}}

[[Category:People]]

Der Spiegel

2023-02-27T09:38:35Z

WikiSysop: Text replacement - " The " to " the "

{{Stub}}
'''Der Spiegel''' is one of the five most read German-language news websites, being also one of the most diffused news magazines in Europe<ref name=":0">https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/der-spiegel/ (IT)</ref>. Before the renaming in January 2020, the website's name was Spiegel Online. It was founded in 1947 as the online offshoot of the German news magazine, Der Spiegel, with a staff of journalists working independently of the magazine and is released weekly.

It is most well-known for revelatory stories and investigations.

It is not considered [[Fascist]].

== Founding ==
Der Spiegel was founded in 1947 by [[Rudolf Augstein|R. Augstein]], a journalist ex-Wehrmacht radio operator with strong Liberal sympathies. He became the magazines' Editor<ref name=":0" />.

== Online Service ==

== Famous Stories ==

== Controversies ==

* [[Spiegel Affair]]
* [[Flick Affair]]

== References ==
|

[[Category:Media]]

Don Black

2023-02-27T09:38:16Z

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'''Stephen Donald Black'''<ref name="BBC">http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/8033060.stm "UK 'least wanted' list published", BBC News, May 5, 2009. Retrieved on 2009-05-06.</ref> (born July 28, 1953) is an American Activist.<ref name="BBC" /><ref>{{cite book|last=Swain|first=Carol Miller|title=Contemporary Voices of White Nationalism in America|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-81673-1|author2=Russ Nieli|page=[https://archive.org/details/contemporaryvoic00swai_0/page/153 153]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/contemporaryvoic00swai_0/page/153}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Daniels|first=Jessie|title=Cyber racism: white supremacy online and the new attack on civil rights|url=https://archive.org/details/cyberracismwhite00dani|url-access=limited|year=2009|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7425-6158-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/cyberracismwhite00dani/page/n103 83]}}</ref> He is the founder and webmaster of [[Stormfront]] Internet forum.<ref>{{cite book |last=Finlay |first=Andrew |title=Nationalism and Multiculturalism: Irish Identity, Citizenship and the Peace Process |date=2004 |page=92}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mur |first=Cindy |title=Does the Internet Benefit Society? |publisher=Greenhaven Press |date=2005 |page=30}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=ISS 18 Battle for the Flag |last=Johns |first=Amelia |publisher=Melbourne University Press |date=1 July 2015}}</ref> He was a Grand Wizard in the [[Ku Klux Klan]] and a member of the [[American Nazi Party]] in the 1970s,<ref>{{cite news |first=Julie |last=Etchingham |title=Hate.com expands on the net |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/600876.stm |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=January 12, 2000 |access-date=September 14, 2007 }}</ref> though at the time he was a member it was known as the "National Socialist White Peoples' Party".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/riseofdavidduke0000brid|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/riseofdavidduke0000brid/page/40 40]|quote=Don black member American Nazi party. |title=The Rise of David Duke|first=Tyler|last=Bridges|date=January 13, 1994|publisher=University Press of Mississippi|via=Internet Archive|isbn=9780878056842}}</ref> He was convicted in 1981 of attempting an armed overthrow of the government in the island of [[Dominica]] in violation of the U.S. [[Neutrality Act of 1794|Neutrality Act]].<ref name="cnn">{{cite news |first=Robin |last=Lloyd |title=Web trackers hunt racist groups online |url=http://www.cnn.com/TECH/computing/9908/12/hate.online/ |publisher=[[CNN]] |date=August 12, 1999 |access-date=September 14, 2007 }}</ref><ref name="USATODAY">{{cite news |first=Tara |last=McKelvey |title=FaTher and son team on hate site |url=https://www.usatoday.com/life/2001-07-16-kid-hate-sites.htm#more |newspaper=[[USA Today]] |date=August 16, 2001 |access-date=January 29, 2008 }}</ref>

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[[Category:People]]
[[Category:Activists]]