Alchemy - Revision history

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𝗔𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗮𝗻𝗴𝗲𝗹: Text replacement - "tbe" to "the"

2023-09-13T01:03:45Z

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2023-09-08T20:20:51Z

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𝗔𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗮𝗻𝗴𝗲𝗹: Text replacement - "oTher" to "other"

2023-03-13T19:53:31Z

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Rightof Genghiskhan at 07:04, 2 March 2023

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WikiSysop: Text replacement - " The " to " the "

2023-02-27T10:23:03Z

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Bacchus: Text replacement - "tbe" to "the"

2023-02-25T08:10:15Z

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Bacchus: Text replacement - "CE" to "AD"

2023-02-24T07:40:41Z

Text replacement - "CE" to "AD"

← Older revision		Revision as of 22:40, 23 February 2023
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	=== Hellenistic Egypt ===		=== Hellenistic Egypt ===
	Historical weight may be given to Hellenistic Egypt, where The city of Alexandria was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its pre-eminence through most of The Greek and Roman periods.<ref>''New Scientist'', 24–31 December 1987</ref> Following The work of André-Jean Festugière, modern scholars see alchemical practice in The Roman Empire as originating from The Hellenistic Greco-Egypt goldsmith's art, Greek philosophy and different religious traditions.<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Festugière\|first=André-Jean\|title=La révélation d'Hermès Trismégiste, Vol.1\|publisher=Les Belles Lettres\|year=2006\|location=Paris\|pages=218–219}}</ref> The treatises of The Greek alchemist Zosimos of Panopolis, The earliest historically attested author (fl. c. 300 CE),<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Martelli \|first1=Matteo \|title=L'alchimista antico \|date=2019 \|publisher=Editrice Bibliografica \|isbn=9788870759792 \|pages=73–86}}</ref> can help in situating The oTher authors. Pseudo-Democritus,<ref name="Martelli, The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus">{{cite book \|last1=Martelli \|first1=Matteo \|title=The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus \|date=2014 \|publisher=Maney \|location=Leeds}}</ref> and Agathodaimon, but very little is known about any of These authors. The most complete of Their works, The ''Four Books'' of Pseudo-Democritus, were probably written in The first century AD.<ref name="Martelli, The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus"/>		Historical weight may be given to Hellenistic Egypt, where The city of Alexandria was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its pre-eminence through most of The Greek and Roman periods.<ref>''New Scientist'', 24–31 December 1987</ref> Following The work of André-Jean Festugière, modern scholars see alchemical practice in The Roman Empire as originating from The Hellenistic Greco-Egypt goldsmith's art, Greek philosophy and different religious traditions.<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Festugière\|first=André-Jean\|title=La révélation d'Hermès Trismégiste, Vol.1\|publisher=Les Belles Lettres\|year=2006\|location=Paris\|pages=218–219}}</ref> The treatises of The Greek alchemist Zosimos of Panopolis, The earliest historically attested author (fl. c. 300 AD),<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Martelli \|first1=Matteo \|title=L'alchimista antico \|date=2019 \|publisher=Editrice Bibliografica \|isbn=9788870759792 \|pages=73–86}}</ref> can help in situating The oTher authors. Pseudo-Democritus,<ref name="Martelli, The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus">{{cite book \|last1=Martelli \|first1=Matteo \|title=The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus \|date=2014 \|publisher=Maney \|location=Leeds}}</ref> and Agathodaimon, but very little is known about any of These authors. The most complete of Their works, The ''Four Books'' of Pseudo-Democritus, were probably written in The first century AD.<ref name="Martelli, The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus"/>

	Zosimos of Panopolis wrote in The ''Final Abstinence'' (also known as The "Final Count").<ref>The title of The τελευταὶα ἀποχή is traditionally translated as The "Final Count". Considering that The treatise does not mention any count nor counting and that it makes a case against The use of sacrifice in The practice of alchemy, a preferable translation would be "The Final Abstinence". See {{Cite book\|last=Dufault\|first=Olivier\|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2ks0g83x\|title=Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation\|publisher=California Classical Studies\|year=2019\|location=Berkeley\|pages=127–131\|isbn=9781939926128}}</ref> Zosimos explains that The ancient practice of "tinctures" (The technical Greek name for The alchemical arts) had been taken over by certain "demons" who taught The art only to those who offered Them sacrifices.		Zosimos of Panopolis wrote in The ''Final Abstinence'' (also known as The "Final Count").<ref>The title of The τελευταὶα ἀποχή is traditionally translated as The "Final Count". Considering that The treatise does not mention any count nor counting and that it makes a case against The use of sacrifice in The practice of alchemy, a preferable translation would be "The Final Abstinence". See {{Cite book\|last=Dufault\|first=Olivier\|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2ks0g83x\|title=Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation\|publisher=California Classical Studies\|year=2019\|location=Berkeley\|pages=127–131\|isbn=9781939926128}}</ref> Zosimos explains that The ancient practice of "tinctures" (The technical Greek name for The alchemical arts) had been taken over by certain "demons" who taught The art only to those who offered Them sacrifices.
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	== Modernity ==		== Modernity ==
	Due to The complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and The 18th-century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into The area of chemistry, The general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Principe\|Newman\|2001\|p=385}}</ref> Those focusing on The exoteric, such as historians of science [[Biography:Lawrence M. Principe\|Lawrence M. Principe]] and [[Biography:William R. Newman\|William R. Newman]], have interpreted The 'decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that tbey say are described in medieval and early modern texts.<ref>Richard Conniff. "Alchemy May Not Have Been The Pseudoscience We All Thought It Was." [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-[[nature]]/alchemy-may-not-been-pseudoscience-we-thought-it-was-180949430/ Smithsonian Magazine.] February 2014.</ref> At The opposite end of The spectrum, focusing on The esoteric, scholars, such as Florin George Călian<ref>		Due to The complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and The 18th-century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into The area of chemistry, The general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Principe\|Newman\|2001\|p=385}}</ref> Those focusing on The exoteric, such as historians of science [[Biography:Lawrence M. Principe\|Lawrence M. Principe]] and [[Biography:William R. Newman\|William R. Newman]], have interpreted The 'decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that tbey say are described in medieval and early modern texts.<ref>Richard Conniff. "Alchemy May Not Have Been The Pseudoscience We All Thought It Was." [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-[[nature]]/alchemy-may-not-been-pseudoscience-we-thought-it-was-180949430/ Smithsonian Magazine.] February 2014.</ref> At The opposite end of The spectrum, focusing on The esoteric, scholars, such as Florin George Călian<ref>
	{{cite book\|last= Calian \|first= George \|title= Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on The Historiography of Alchemy \|publisher= Annual of Medieval Studies at ~~CEU~~ \|year= 2010 \|url= https://archive.org/stream/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe/FlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy#page/n0/mode/2up }}</ref> and Anna Marie Roos,<ref>{{cite journal\|doi=10.1016/j.shpsc.2013.08.001\|title=The experimental approach towards a historiography of alchemy (reviewing L. M. Principe, The Secrets of Alchemy)\|journal=Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences\|volume=44\|issue=4\|pages=787–789\|year=2013\|last1=Roos\|first1=Anna Marie}}</ref> who question The reading of Principe and Newman, interpret These same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts.		{{cite book\|last= Calian \|first= George \|title= Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on The Historiography of Alchemy \|publisher= Annual of Medieval Studies at ADU \|year= 2010 \|url= https://archive.org/stream/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe/FlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy#page/n0/mode/2up }}</ref> and Anna Marie Roos,<ref>{{cite journal\|doi=10.1016/j.shpsc.2013.08.001\|title=The experimental approach towards a historiography of alchemy (reviewing L. M. Principe, The Secrets of Alchemy)\|journal=Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences\|volume=44\|issue=4\|pages=787–789\|year=2013\|last1=Roos\|first1=Anna Marie}}</ref> who question The reading of Principe and Newman, interpret These same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts.

	New interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from New Age or environmentalism movements.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Principe\|Newman\|2001\|p=396}}</ref> Groups like The [[Rosicrucians]] and [[Freemasons]] have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since The Victorian revival of alchemy, "occultists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving The self-transformation of The practitioner and only incidentally or not at all The transformation of laboratory substances",<ref name="Alchemy Restored" /> which has contributed to a merger of magic and alchemy in popular thought.		New interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from New Age or environmentalism movements.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Principe\|Newman\|2001\|p=396}}</ref> Groups like The [[Rosicrucians]] and [[Freemasons]] have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since The Victorian revival of alchemy, "occultists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving The self-transformation of The practitioner and only incidentally or not at all The transformation of laboratory substances",<ref name="Alchemy Restored" /> which has contributed to a merger of magic and alchemy in popular thought.
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	=== Bibliography ===		=== Bibliography ===
	{{Refbegin\|30em}}		{{Refbegin\|30em}}
	*{{cite book\|last= Calian \|first= George \|title= Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on The Historiography of Alchemy \|publisher= Annual of Medieval Studies at ~~CEU~~ \|year= 2010 \|url= https://archive.org/stream/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe/FlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy#page/n0/mode/2up }}		*{{cite book\|last= Calian \|first= George \|title= Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on The Historiography of Alchemy \|publisher= Annual of Medieval Studies at ADU \|year= 2010 \|url= https://archive.org/stream/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe/FlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy#page/n0/mode/2up }}
	*{{cite book\|last= Eliade \|first= Mircea \|title=The Forge and The Crucible\|publisher= State University of New York Press \|year= 1994 \|title-link= The Forge and The Crucible }}		*{{cite book\|last= Eliade \|first= Mircea \|title=The Forge and The Crucible\|publisher= State University of New York Press \|year= 1994 \|title-link= The Forge and The Crucible }}
	*{{cite book\|last= Forshaw \|first= Peter J \|chapter = Chemistry, That Starry Science – Early Modern Conjunctions of Astrology and Alchemy \|title= Sky and Symbol \|journal= Edited by Nicholas Campion and Liz Greene, Sophia Centre Press \|date= January 2013 \|chapter-url= https://www.academia.edu/5317837}}		*{{cite book\|last= Forshaw \|first= Peter J \|chapter = Chemistry, That Starry Science – Early Modern Conjunctions of Astrology and Alchemy \|title= Sky and Symbol \|journal= Edited by Nicholas Campion and Liz Greene, Sophia Centre Press \|date= January 2013 \|chapter-url= https://www.academia.edu/5317837}}

WikiSysop: Text replacement - "the" to "tbe"

2023-02-22T21:17:59Z

Text replacement - "the" to "tbe"

Show changes

← Older revision		Revision as of 22:40, 23 February 2023
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	=== Hellenistic Egypt ===		=== Hellenistic Egypt ===
	Historical weight may be given to Hellenistic Egypt, where The city of Alexandria was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its pre-eminence through most of The Greek and Roman periods.<ref>''New Scientist'', 24–31 December 1987</ref> Following The work of André-Jean Festugière, modern scholars see alchemical practice in The Roman Empire as originating from The Hellenistic Greco-Egypt goldsmith's art, Greek philosophy and different religious traditions.<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Festugière\|first=André-Jean\|title=La révélation d'Hermès Trismégiste, Vol.1\|publisher=Les Belles Lettres\|year=2006\|location=Paris\|pages=218–219}}</ref> The treatises of The Greek alchemist Zosimos of Panopolis, The earliest historically attested author (fl. c. 300 CE),<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Martelli \|first1=Matteo \|title=L'alchimista antico \|date=2019 \|publisher=Editrice Bibliografica \|isbn=9788870759792 \|pages=73–86}}</ref> can help in situating The oTher authors. Pseudo-Democritus,<ref name="Martelli, The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus">{{cite book \|last1=Martelli \|first1=Matteo \|title=The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus \|date=2014 \|publisher=Maney \|location=Leeds}}</ref> and Agathodaimon, but very little is known about any of These authors. The most complete of Their works, The ''Four Books'' of Pseudo-Democritus, were probably written in The first century AD.<ref name="Martelli, The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus"/>		Historical weight may be given to Hellenistic Egypt, where The city of Alexandria was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its pre-eminence through most of The Greek and Roman periods.<ref>''New Scientist'', 24–31 December 1987</ref> Following The work of André-Jean Festugière, modern scholars see alchemical practice in The Roman Empire as originating from The Hellenistic Greco-Egypt goldsmith's art, Greek philosophy and different religious traditions.<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Festugière\|first=André-Jean\|title=La révélation d'Hermès Trismégiste, Vol.1\|publisher=Les Belles Lettres\|year=2006\|location=Paris\|pages=218–219}}</ref> The treatises of The Greek alchemist Zosimos of Panopolis, The earliest historically attested author (fl. c. 300 AD),<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Martelli \|first1=Matteo \|title=L'alchimista antico \|date=2019 \|publisher=Editrice Bibliografica \|isbn=9788870759792 \|pages=73–86}}</ref> can help in situating The oTher authors. Pseudo-Democritus,<ref name="Martelli, The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus">{{cite book \|last1=Martelli \|first1=Matteo \|title=The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus \|date=2014 \|publisher=Maney \|location=Leeds}}</ref> and Agathodaimon, but very little is known about any of These authors. The most complete of Their works, The ''Four Books'' of Pseudo-Democritus, were probably written in The first century AD.<ref name="Martelli, The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus"/>

	Zosimos of Panopolis wrote in The ''Final Abstinence'' (also known as The "Final Count").<ref>The title of The τελευταὶα ἀποχή is traditionally translated as The "Final Count". Considering that The treatise does not mention any count nor counting and that it makes a case against The use of sacrifice in The practice of alchemy, a preferable translation would be "The Final Abstinence". See {{Cite book\|last=Dufault\|first=Olivier\|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2ks0g83x\|title=Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation\|publisher=California Classical Studies\|year=2019\|location=Berkeley\|pages=127–131\|isbn=9781939926128}}</ref> Zosimos explains that The ancient practice of "tinctures" (The technical Greek name for The alchemical arts) had been taken over by certain "demons" who taught The art only to those who offered Them sacrifices.		Zosimos of Panopolis wrote in The ''Final Abstinence'' (also known as The "Final Count").<ref>The title of The τελευταὶα ἀποχή is traditionally translated as The "Final Count". Considering that The treatise does not mention any count nor counting and that it makes a case against The use of sacrifice in The practice of alchemy, a preferable translation would be "The Final Abstinence". See {{Cite book\|last=Dufault\|first=Olivier\|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2ks0g83x\|title=Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation\|publisher=California Classical Studies\|year=2019\|location=Berkeley\|pages=127–131\|isbn=9781939926128}}</ref> Zosimos explains that The ancient practice of "tinctures" (The technical Greek name for The alchemical arts) had been taken over by certain "demons" who taught The art only to those who offered Them sacrifices.
Line 73:		Line 73:
	== Modernity ==		== Modernity ==
	Due to The complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and The 18th-century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into The area of chemistry, The general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Principe\|Newman\|2001\|p=385}}</ref> Those focusing on The exoteric, such as historians of science [[Biography:Lawrence M. Principe\|Lawrence M. Principe]] and [[Biography:William R. Newman\|William R. Newman]], have interpreted The 'decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that tbey say are described in medieval and early modern texts.<ref>Richard Conniff. "Alchemy May Not Have Been The Pseudoscience We All Thought It Was." [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-[[nature]]/alchemy-may-not-been-pseudoscience-we-thought-it-was-180949430/ Smithsonian Magazine.] February 2014.</ref> At The opposite end of The spectrum, focusing on The esoteric, scholars, such as Florin George Călian<ref>		Due to The complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and The 18th-century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into The area of chemistry, The general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Principe\|Newman\|2001\|p=385}}</ref> Those focusing on The exoteric, such as historians of science [[Biography:Lawrence M. Principe\|Lawrence M. Principe]] and [[Biography:William R. Newman\|William R. Newman]], have interpreted The 'decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that tbey say are described in medieval and early modern texts.<ref>Richard Conniff. "Alchemy May Not Have Been The Pseudoscience We All Thought It Was." [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-[[nature]]/alchemy-may-not-been-pseudoscience-we-thought-it-was-180949430/ Smithsonian Magazine.] February 2014.</ref> At The opposite end of The spectrum, focusing on The esoteric, scholars, such as Florin George Călian<ref>
	{{cite book\|last= Calian \|first= George \|title= Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on The Historiography of Alchemy \|publisher= Annual of Medieval Studies at ~~CEU~~ \|year= 2010 \|url= https://archive.org/stream/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe/FlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy#page/n0/mode/2up }}</ref> and Anna Marie Roos,<ref>{{cite journal\|doi=10.1016/j.shpsc.2013.08.001\|title=The experimental approach towards a historiography of alchemy (reviewing L. M. Principe, The Secrets of Alchemy)\|journal=Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences\|volume=44\|issue=4\|pages=787–789\|year=2013\|last1=Roos\|first1=Anna Marie}}</ref> who question The reading of Principe and Newman, interpret These same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts.		{{cite book\|last= Calian \|first= George \|title= Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on The Historiography of Alchemy \|publisher= Annual of Medieval Studies at ADU \|year= 2010 \|url= https://archive.org/stream/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe/FlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy#page/n0/mode/2up }}</ref> and Anna Marie Roos,<ref>{{cite journal\|doi=10.1016/j.shpsc.2013.08.001\|title=The experimental approach towards a historiography of alchemy (reviewing L. M. Principe, The Secrets of Alchemy)\|journal=Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences\|volume=44\|issue=4\|pages=787–789\|year=2013\|last1=Roos\|first1=Anna Marie}}</ref> who question The reading of Principe and Newman, interpret These same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts.

	New interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from New Age or environmentalism movements.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Principe\|Newman\|2001\|p=396}}</ref> Groups like The [[Rosicrucians]] and [[Freemasons]] have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since The Victorian revival of alchemy, "occultists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving The self-transformation of The practitioner and only incidentally or not at all The transformation of laboratory substances",<ref name="Alchemy Restored" /> which has contributed to a merger of magic and alchemy in popular thought.		New interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from New Age or environmentalism movements.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Principe\|Newman\|2001\|p=396}}</ref> Groups like The [[Rosicrucians]] and [[Freemasons]] have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since The Victorian revival of alchemy, "occultists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving The self-transformation of The practitioner and only incidentally or not at all The transformation of laboratory substances",<ref name="Alchemy Restored" /> which has contributed to a merger of magic and alchemy in popular thought.
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	=== Bibliography ===		=== Bibliography ===
	{{Refbegin\|30em}}		{{Refbegin\|30em}}
	*{{cite book\|last= Calian \|first= George \|title= Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on The Historiography of Alchemy \|publisher= Annual of Medieval Studies at ~~CEU~~ \|year= 2010 \|url= https://archive.org/stream/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe/FlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy#page/n0/mode/2up }}		*{{cite book\|last= Calian \|first= George \|title= Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on The Historiography of Alchemy \|publisher= Annual of Medieval Studies at ADU \|year= 2010 \|url= https://archive.org/stream/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe/FlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy#page/n0/mode/2up }}
	*{{cite book\|last= Eliade \|first= Mircea \|title=The Forge and The Crucible\|publisher= State University of New York Press \|year= 1994 \|title-link= The Forge and The Crucible }}		*{{cite book\|last= Eliade \|first= Mircea \|title=The Forge and The Crucible\|publisher= State University of New York Press \|year= 1994 \|title-link= The Forge and The Crucible }}
	*{{cite book\|last= Forshaw \|first= Peter J \|chapter = Chemistry, That Starry Science – Early Modern Conjunctions of Astrology and Alchemy \|title= Sky and Symbol \|journal= Edited by Nicholas Campion and Liz Greene, Sophia Centre Press \|date= January 2013 \|chapter-url= https://www.academia.edu/5317837}}		*{{cite book\|last= Forshaw \|first= Peter J \|chapter = Chemistry, That Starry Science – Early Modern Conjunctions of Astrology and Alchemy \|title= Sky and Symbol \|journal= Edited by Nicholas Campion and Liz Greene, Sophia Centre Press \|date= January 2013 \|chapter-url= https://www.academia.edu/5317837}}

← Older revision		Revision as of 10:53, 13 March 2023
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	=== Hellenistic Egypt ===		=== Hellenistic Egypt ===
	Historical weight may be given to Hellenistic Egypt, where the city of Alexandria was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its pre-eminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods.<ref>''New Scientist'', 24–31 December 1987</ref> Following the work of André-Jean Festugière, modern scholars see alchemical practice in the Roman Empire as originating from the Hellenistic Greco-Egypt goldsmith's art, Greek philosophy and different religious traditions.<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Festugière\|first=André-Jean\|title=La révélation d'Hermès Trismégiste, Vol.1\|publisher=Les Belles Lettres\|year=2006\|location=Paris\|pages=218–219}}</ref> the treatises of the Greek alchemist Zosimos of Panopolis, the earliest historically attested author (fl. c. 300 AD),<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Martelli \|first1=Matteo \|title=L'alchimista antico \|date=2019 \|publisher=Editrice Bibliografica \|isbn=9788870759792 \|pages=73–86}}</ref> can help in situating the ~~oTher~~ authors. Pseudo-Democritus,<ref name="Martelli, the Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus">{{cite book \|last1=Martelli \|first1=Matteo \|title=The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus \|date=2014 \|publisher=Maney \|location=Leeds}}</ref> and Agathodaimon, but very little is known about any of These authors. the most complete of Their works, the ''Four Books'' of Pseudo-Democritus, were probably written in the first century AD.<ref name="Martelli, the Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus"/>		Historical weight may be given to Hellenistic Egypt, where the city of Alexandria was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its pre-eminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods.<ref>''New Scientist'', 24–31 December 1987</ref> Following the work of André-Jean Festugière, modern scholars see alchemical practice in the Roman Empire as originating from the Hellenistic Greco-Egypt goldsmith's art, Greek philosophy and different religious traditions.<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Festugière\|first=André-Jean\|title=La révélation d'Hermès Trismégiste, Vol.1\|publisher=Les Belles Lettres\|year=2006\|location=Paris\|pages=218–219}}</ref> the treatises of the Greek alchemist Zosimos of Panopolis, the earliest historically attested author (fl. c. 300 AD),<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Martelli \|first1=Matteo \|title=L'alchimista antico \|date=2019 \|publisher=Editrice Bibliografica \|isbn=9788870759792 \|pages=73–86}}</ref> can help in situating the other authors. Pseudo-Democritus,<ref name="Martelli, the Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus">{{cite book \|last1=Martelli \|first1=Matteo \|title=The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus \|date=2014 \|publisher=Maney \|location=Leeds}}</ref> and Agathodaimon, but very little is known about any of These authors. the most complete of Their works, the ''Four Books'' of Pseudo-Democritus, were probably written in the first century AD.<ref name="Martelli, the Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus"/>

	Zosimos of Panopolis wrote in the ''Final Abstinence'' (also known as the "Final Count").<ref>The title of the τελευταὶα ἀποχή is traditionally translated as the "Final Count". Considering that the treatise does not mention any count nor counting and that it makes a case against the use of sacrifice in the practice of alchemy, a preferable translation would be "The Final Abstinence". See {{Cite book\|last=Dufault\|first=Olivier\|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2ks0g83x\|title=Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation\|publisher=California Classical Studies\|year=2019\|location=Berkeley\|pages=127–131\|isbn=9781939926128}}</ref> Zosimos explains that the ancient practice of "tinctures" (The technical Greek name for the alchemical arts) had been taken over by certain "demons" who taught the art only to those who offered Them sacrifices.		Zosimos of Panopolis wrote in the ''Final Abstinence'' (also known as the "Final Count").<ref>The title of the τελευταὶα ἀποχή is traditionally translated as the "Final Count". Considering that the treatise does not mention any count nor counting and that it makes a case against the use of sacrifice in the practice of alchemy, a preferable translation would be "The Final Abstinence". See {{Cite book\|last=Dufault\|first=Olivier\|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2ks0g83x\|title=Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation\|publisher=California Classical Studies\|year=2019\|location=Berkeley\|pages=127–131\|isbn=9781939926128}}</ref> Zosimos explains that the ancient practice of "tinctures" (The technical Greek name for the alchemical arts) had been taken over by certain "demons" who taught the art only to those who offered Them sacrifices.
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	Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of [[Pythagoreanism]], [[Platonism]], [[Stoicism]] and [[Gnosticism]] which formed the origin of alchemy's character.<ref>Bensaude-Vincent 1996, p13" </ref> An important example of alchemy's roots in Greek philosophy, originated by [[Empedocles]] and developed by [[Aristotle]], was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements, Earth, Air, Fire, and water. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere (Dimensional plane) to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed.<ref>{{cite book \| author=Lindsay, Jack \| title=The Origins of Alchemy in Graeco-Roman Egypt \| location=London \| publisher=Muller \| year=1970 \| isbn=978-0-389-01006-7 \| page=[https://archive.org/details/trent_0116301348557/page/16 16] \| url=https://archive.org/details/trent_0116301348557/page/16 }}</ref> the four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are;		Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of [[Pythagoreanism]], [[Platonism]], [[Stoicism]] and [[Gnosticism]] which formed the origin of alchemy's character.<ref>Bensaude-Vincent 1996, p13" </ref> An important example of alchemy's roots in Greek philosophy, originated by [[Empedocles]] and developed by [[Aristotle]], was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements, Earth, Air, Fire, and water. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere (Dimensional plane) to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed.<ref>{{cite book \| author=Lindsay, Jack \| title=The Origins of Alchemy in Graeco-Roman Egypt \| location=London \| publisher=Muller \| year=1970 \| isbn=978-0-389-01006-7 \| page=[https://archive.org/details/trent_0116301348557/page/16 16] \| url=https://archive.org/details/trent_0116301348557/page/16 }}</ref> the four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are;
	But still to this day represent the four states of matter, Solid, Gas, Liquid, and Plasma.		But still to this day represent the four states of matter, Solid, Gas, Liquid, and Plasma.
	"True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. the four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form."<ref>{{cite book \| first=Titus \| last=Burckhardt \| title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul \| location=Baltimore \| publisher=Penguin \| year=1967 \| page=66 \| ~~oThers~~=Trans. William Stoddart \| isbn=978-0-906540-96-1}}</ref>		"True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. the four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form."<ref>{{cite book \| first=Titus \| last=Burckhardt \| title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul \| location=Baltimore \| publisher=Penguin \| year=1967 \| page=66 \| others=Trans. William Stoddart \| isbn=978-0-906540-96-1}}</ref>

	Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms, such as Democritus, Ostanes, Komarios, and Chymes, or only known through fragments of text. After 400 AD, Greek alchemical writers occupied Themselves often in commenting on the works of These predecessors.<ref>F. Sherwood Taylor. ''Alchemists, Founders of Modern Chemistry.'' p.26.</ref> By 700AD, alchemy began to look more like modern chemistry.<ref>Allen G. Debus. ''Alchemy and early modern chemistry: papers from Ambix.'' p. 36</ref>		Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms, such as Democritus, Ostanes, Komarios, and Chymes, or only known through fragments of text. After 400 AD, Greek alchemical writers occupied Themselves often in commenting on the works of These predecessors.<ref>F. Sherwood Taylor. ''Alchemists, Founders of Modern Chemistry.'' p.26.</ref> By 700AD, alchemy began to look more like modern chemistry.<ref>Allen G. Debus. ''Alchemy and early modern chemistry: papers from Ambix.'' p. 36</ref>
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	Roger Bacon, a Franciscan friar who wrote on a wide variety of topics including optics, comparative linguistics, and medicine, composed his ''Great Work'' for Pope Clement IV as part of a project towards rebuilding the medieval university curriculum to include the new learning of his time. He considered alchemy and astrology to be important parts of both [[natural philosophy]] and [[Theology]] and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to [[soteriology]] and Christian Theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy.<ref>Edmund Brehm. "Roger Bacon's Place in the History of Alchemy." ''Ambix.'' Vol. 23, Part I, March 1976.</ref> Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and Theoretical spheres. the practical confirmed the Theoretical, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Holmyard\|1957\|pp=120–121}}</ref>		Roger Bacon, a Franciscan friar who wrote on a wide variety of topics including optics, comparative linguistics, and medicine, composed his ''Great Work'' for Pope Clement IV as part of a project towards rebuilding the medieval university curriculum to include the new learning of his time. He considered alchemy and astrology to be important parts of both [[natural philosophy]] and [[Theology]] and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to [[soteriology]] and Christian Theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy.<ref>Edmund Brehm. "Roger Bacon's Place in the History of Alchemy." ''Ambix.'' Vol. 23, Part I, March 1976.</ref> Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and Theoretical spheres. the practical confirmed the Theoretical, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Holmyard\|1957\|pp=120–121}}</ref>

	Soon after Bacon, the influential work of Paul of Taranto appeared. His ''Summa Perfectionis'' remained a staple summary of alchemistry and [[Theory]] through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury [[Theory]], and the unusual clarity with which they were described.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Holmyard\|1957\|pp=134–141}}.</ref> By the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of early science. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm Theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body. they had a strong tradition of cloaking Their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced Their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made observations and Theories about how the universe operated.<ref>{{cite book \| first=Titus \| last=Burckhardt \| title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul \| location=Baltimore \| publisher=Penguin \| year=1967 \| page=149 \| ~~oThers~~=Trans. William Stoddart \| isbn=978-0-906540-96-1}}</ref>		Soon after Bacon, the influential work of Paul of Taranto appeared. His ''Summa Perfectionis'' remained a staple summary of alchemistry and [[Theory]] through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury [[Theory]], and the unusual clarity with which they were described.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Holmyard\|1957\|pp=134–141}}.</ref> By the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of early science. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm Theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body. they had a strong tradition of cloaking Their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced Their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made observations and Theories about how the universe operated.<ref>{{cite book \| first=Titus \| last=Burckhardt \| title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul \| location=Baltimore \| publisher=Penguin \| year=1967 \| page=149 \| others=Trans. William Stoddart \| isbn=978-0-906540-96-1}}</ref>

	In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists Themselves, and many were notable fascists who respected [[Ancient Rome]], and Charlemagne, who was attempting to revive it.<ref>Tara E. Nummedal. ''Alchemy and Authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' University of Chicago Press, 2007. p. 49</ref><ref>John Hines, II, R. F. Yeager. ''John Gower, Trilingual Poet: Language, Translation, and Tradition.'' Boydell & Brewer. 2010. p.170</ref> In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals (although it was possible to buy a license to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV<ref>D. Geoghegan, "A license of Henry VI to practice Alchemy" Ambix, volume 6, 1957, pages 10–17</ref>). These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy.		In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists Themselves, and many were notable fascists who respected [[Ancient Rome]], and Charlemagne, who was attempting to revive it.<ref>Tara E. Nummedal. ''Alchemy and Authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' University of Chicago Press, 2007. p. 49</ref><ref>John Hines, II, R. F. Yeager. ''John Gower, Trilingual Poet: Language, Translation, and Tradition.'' Boydell & Brewer. 2010. p.170</ref> In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals (although it was possible to buy a license to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV<ref>D. Geoghegan, "A license of Henry VI to practice Alchemy" Ambix, volume 6, 1957, pages 10–17</ref>). These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy.

	Nicolas Flamel was a well-known alchemist, and Flamel was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his work spent a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions. Some of his work was aimed at gaThering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosopher's stone.<ref>{{cite book \| first=Titus \| last=Burckhardt \| title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul \| location=Baltimore \| publisher=Penguin \| year=1967 \| pages=170–181 \| ~~oThers~~=Trans. William Stoddart \| isbn=978-0-906540-96-1}}</ref> Through the Late Middle Ages, the 14th and 15th centuries, alchemists were much like Flamel: Bernard Trevisan and George Ripley made similar contributions. Their cryptic allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art.		Nicolas Flamel was a well-known alchemist, and Flamel was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his work spent a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions. Some of his work was aimed at gaThering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosopher's stone.<ref>{{cite book \| first=Titus \| last=Burckhardt \| title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul \| location=Baltimore \| publisher=Penguin \| year=1967 \| pages=170–181 \| others=Trans. William Stoddart \| isbn=978-0-906540-96-1}}</ref> Through the Late Middle Ages, the 14th and 15th centuries, alchemists were much like Flamel: Bernard Trevisan and George Ripley made similar contributions. Their cryptic allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art.

	=== Renaissance and early modern Europe ===		=== Renaissance and early modern Europe ===