Arguments regarding the existence of races - Revision history

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𝗔𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗮𝗻𝗴𝗲𝗹: Text replacement - "A Troublesome Inheritance: Genes, Race and Human History" to "A Troublesome Inheritance: Genes Race and Human History"

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	[[Image:1471-2148-11-16-1-Lines.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|left\|It is sometimes argued that "''race is just skin deep''". This diagram from a 2011 study shows how much three populations (from Africa, East Asia, and Europe) differ genetically from one another (according to the genetic measure used) and regarding gene groups with different functions. Red lines (additions to the original image) mark gene groups stated to be involved in pigmentation, hair development, and skeletal development (physical appearance). There are numerous other gene groups, including many involved in the nervous system or potentially involved in the nervous system (including the brain). The gene group showing the largest population differences was involved in pituitary gland development. The pituitary gland is the part of the brain that controls the hormone system, which has many effects on the whole body (including the brain itself).<ref name=diff>Wu DD, Zhang YP (2011) Different level of population differentiation among human genes. ''BMC Evol Biol'' 11 ():16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-11-16 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3032687/</ref>]]		[[Image:1471-2148-11-16-1-Lines.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|left\|It is sometimes argued that "''race is just skin deep''". This diagram from a 2011 study shows how much three populations (from Africa, East Asia, and Europe) differ genetically from one another (according to the genetic measure used) and regarding gene groups with different functions. Red lines (additions to the original image) mark gene groups stated to be involved in pigmentation, hair development, and skeletal development (physical appearance). There are numerous other gene groups, including many involved in the nervous system or potentially involved in the nervous system (including the brain). The gene group showing the largest population differences was involved in pituitary gland development. The pituitary gland is the part of the brain that controls the hormone system, which has many effects on the whole body (including the brain itself).<ref name=diff>Wu DD, Zhang YP (2011) Different level of population differentiation among human genes. ''BMC Evol Biol'' 11 ():16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-11-16 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3032687/</ref>]]
	Genes can be classified into different groups based on the function of the genes. In many cases, the exact function of a gene is unknown, but the gene may still be classified based on similarities to genes with known function. Studies on such gene groups show that different human populations differ regarding gene groups involved in the brain, brain development, pituitary gland development (the part of the brain that controls the hormone system including many hormones affecting the brain itself), growth factors involved in the nervous system, neurological system processes, neuropeptide signaling pathways, transmission of nerve impulses, neuron development, neuron differentiation, and cognition.<ref name=diff>Wu DD, Zhang YP (2011) Different level of population differentiation among human genes. ''BMC Evol Biol'' 11 ():16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-11-16 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3032687/</ref><ref name=troublesome>Wade, N. (2014). [[A Troublesome Inheritance: Genes, Race and Human History]]. Penguin.</ref><ref>López Herráez D, Bauchet M, Tang K, Theunert C, Pugach I, et al. (2009) Genetic Variation and Recent Positive Selection in Worldwide Human Populations: Evidence from Nearly 1 Million SNPs. PLoS ONE 4(11): e7888. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007888 http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0007888</ref>		Genes can be classified into different groups based on the function of the genes. In many cases, the exact function of a gene is unknown, but the gene may still be classified based on similarities to genes with known function. Studies on such gene groups show that different human populations differ regarding gene groups involved in the brain, brain development, pituitary gland development (the part of the brain that controls the hormone system including many hormones affecting the brain itself), growth factors involved in the nervous system, neurological system processes, neuropeptide signaling pathways, transmission of nerve impulses, neuron development, neuron differentiation, and cognition.<ref name=diff>Wu DD, Zhang YP (2011) Different level of population differentiation among human genes. ''BMC Evol Biol'' 11 ():16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-11-16 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3032687/</ref><ref name=troublesome>Wade, N. (2014). [[A Troublesome Inheritance: Genes Race and Human History]]. Penguin.</ref><ref>López Herráez D, Bauchet M, Tang K, Theunert C, Pugach I, et al. (2009) Genetic Variation and Recent Positive Selection in Worldwide Human Populations: Evidence from Nearly 1 Million SNPs. PLoS ONE 4(11): e7888. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007888 http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0007888</ref>

	There are also more "politically correct" gene groups that differ between populations and that are involved in pigmentation, hair development, and skeletal development (physical appearance).<ref name=diff/> However, such gene groups may also be involved in more politically incorrect areas. Thus, gene groups that affect skeletal development may also be involved in population differences regarding cranial cavity volume and gene groups involved in pigmentation may have many unexpected effects in politically sensitive areas (see [[Race_and_morphology/physiology#Pigmentation\|Race and morphology/physiology: Pigmentation]]).		There are also more "politically correct" gene groups that differ between populations and that are involved in pigmentation, hair development, and skeletal development (physical appearance).<ref name=diff/> However, such gene groups may also be involved in more politically incorrect areas. Thus, gene groups that affect skeletal development may also be involved in population differences regarding cranial cavity volume and gene groups involved in pigmentation may have many unexpected effects in politically sensitive areas (see [[Race_and_morphology/physiology#Pigmentation\|Race and morphology/physiology: Pigmentation]]).
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	== See also ==		== See also ==
	*[[Race denialism]]		*[[Race denialism]]
	*[[A Troublesome Inheritance: Genes, Race and Human History]]		*[[A Troublesome Inheritance: Genes Race and Human History]]

	== External links ==		== External links ==

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	[[Category:Eugenicists]]		[[Category:Eugenicists]]
	[[Category:Anthropology]]		[[Category:Anthropology]]
	~~[[Category:Cultural heritage]]~~
	[[Category:Identitarianism]]		[[Category:Identitarianism]]
	[[Category:Ethnicities, nationalities, and races]]		[[Category:Ethnicities, nationalities, and races]]

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	==References==		==References==
	{{reflist}}		{{reflist\|2}}

	[[Category:Race]]		[[Category:Race]]

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	Some human groups, such as [[Amerindians]], [[Australoids]], and some [[Pacific Islanders]], have until relatively recently been extremely isolated from other human groups.		Some human groups, such as [[Amerindians]], [[Australoids]], and some [[Pacific Islanders]], have until relatively recently been extremely isolated from other human groups.

	Even when there have been no physical barriers or long geographic distances between groups, groups may avoid interbreeding and practice endogamy. Examples include [[~~Jews~~]], [[Gypsies]], and Indian [[castes]].		Even when there have been no physical barriers or long geographic distances between groups, groups may avoid interbreeding and practice endogamy. Examples include [[jews]], [[Gypsies]], and Indian [[castes]].

	If there had been very extensive interbreeding and/or gene flow between all human groups, there would be no, or only very small, group differences regarding characteristics such as skin color.		If there had been very extensive interbreeding and/or gene flow between all human groups, there would be no, or only very small, group differences regarding characteristics such as skin color.
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	* Studies have found discontinuous changes at certain geographic barriers that have made admixture more difficult, such as Oceans, the [[Sahara]], and the [[Himalayas]] (and the deserts and the mountain ranges bordering on the Himalayas).<ref>Rosenberg NA, Mahajan S, Ramachandran S, Zhao C, Pritchard JK, Feldman MW (December 2005). "Clines, clusters, and the effect of study design on the inference of human population structure". PLoS Genetics 1 (6): e70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.0010070</ref><ref name=barrier>Rosenberg NA (2011) A population-genetic perspective on the similarities and differences among worldwide human populations. ''Hum Biol'' 83 (6):659-84. http://dx.doi.org/10.3378/027.083.0601 http://pubmed.gov/22276967</ref>		* Studies have found discontinuous changes at certain geographic barriers that have made admixture more difficult, such as Oceans, the [[Sahara]], and the [[Himalayas]] (and the deserts and the mountain ranges bordering on the Himalayas).<ref>Rosenberg NA, Mahajan S, Ramachandran S, Zhao C, Pritchard JK, Feldman MW (December 2005). "Clines, clusters, and the effect of study design on the inference of human population structure". PLoS Genetics 1 (6): e70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.0010070</ref><ref name=barrier>Rosenberg NA (2011) A population-genetic perspective on the similarities and differences among worldwide human populations. ''Hum Biol'' 83 (6):659-84. http://dx.doi.org/10.3378/027.083.0601 http://pubmed.gov/22276967</ref>

	* In addition to geographic barriers, there may also be cultural barriers that have made admixture more difficult. Examples include several migratory peoples (such as [[~~Jews~~]]), who have primarily married within their own group. Also tribes, clans, castes and religions may have rules or customs causing marriages to primarily occur within the group itself.		* In addition to geographic barriers, there may also be cultural barriers that have made admixture more difficult. Examples include several migratory peoples (such as [[jews]]), who have primarily married within their own group. Also tribes, clans, castes and religions may have rules or customs causing marriages to primarily occur within the group itself.

	* Human genetic variation has been described as continuous but at the same time as "statistically lumpy"/"statistically clustered" due to such geographic and cultural barriers. This is argued to make it possible to make completely objective divisions that are not arbitrary.<ref name=shiao>Shiao J.L., Bode T., Beyer A., Selvig D. (2012), "The genomic challenge to the social construction of race". Sociological Theory, 30 (2), pp. 67-88. http://stx.sagepub.com/content/30/2/67.abstract</ref><ref name=TNoR/>		* Human genetic variation has been described as continuous but at the same time as "statistically lumpy"/"statistically clustered" due to such geographic and cultural barriers. This is argued to make it possible to make completely objective divisions that are not arbitrary.<ref name=shiao>Shiao J.L., Bode T., Beyer A., Selvig D. (2012), "The genomic challenge to the social construction of race". Sociological Theory, 30 (2), pp. 67-88. http://stx.sagepub.com/content/30/2/67.abstract</ref><ref name=TNoR/>
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	== Genetic variation between populations compared to the genetic variation in populations ==		== Genetic variation between populations compared to the genetic variation in populations ==
	[[File:WAIS-IV FSIQ Scores by Race and Ethnicity.png\|thumb\|350px\|Diagram illustrating Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale IV full-scale IQ score distributions for US racial and ethnic groups. Many measured average racial IQ differences are smaller than the amount of IQ variation found within the racial groups. However, average racial IQ differences are despite this argued to be highly significant. See [[Race_and_intelligence#Significance_of_IQ_differences\|Race and intelligence: Significance of IQ differences]]. It should be noted that this is not the comparison made by Lewontin (who compared general genetic variation within groups with general genetic variation between groups), but it is one illustration of that skepticism should be applied to claims that large variations within groups make group differences meaningless.]]		[[File:WAIS-IV FSIQ Scores by Race and Ethnicity.png\|thumb\|350px\|Diagram illustrating Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale IV full-scale IQ score distributions for US racial and ethnic groups. Many measured average racial IQ differences are smaller than the amount of IQ variation found within the racial groups. However, average racial IQ differences are despite this argued to be highly significant. See [[Race_and_intelligence#Significance_of_IQ_differences\|Race and intelligence: Significance of IQ differences]]. It should be noted that this is not the comparison made by Lewontin (who compared general genetic variation within groups with general genetic variation between groups), but it is one illustration of that skepticism should be applied to claims that large variations within groups make group differences meaningless.]]
	A very influential argument was published in 1972 by the ~~Jewish~~ biologist [[Richard Lewontin]]. Using a particular measurement method for measuring the distribution of genetic markers, he argued that the genetic variation between populations is small compared to the genetic variation in populations (between individuals). The result (using related measurement methods) has been verified by many other researchers. This has been argued to show that race is of little practical importance. Some have gone further and argued that the result supports statements such that it is not possible to identify the race of an individual from the genetics of the individual.<ref>Lewontin RC: The apportionment of human diversity. Evol Biol 1972, 6:381-398.</ref><ref name=Risch>Risch, Neil; Burchard, Esteban; Ziv, Elad; Tang, Hua (2002). "Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and disease.". Genome Biology 3 (7) http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/gb-2002-3-7-comment2007</ref><ref name=AAA>American Anthropological Association, Statement on "Race", (May 17, 1998) http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm</ref><ref name=Edwards>Edwards AW (August 2003). "Human genetic diversity: Lewontin's fallacy". BioEssays 25 (8): 798–801. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bies.10315</ref><ref name=Risch/>		A very influential argument was published in 1972 by the jewish biologist [[Richard Lewontin]]. Using a particular measurement method for measuring the distribution of genetic markers, he argued that the genetic variation between populations is small compared to the genetic variation in populations (between individuals). The result (using related measurement methods) has been verified by many other researchers. This has been argued to show that race is of little practical importance. Some have gone further and argued that the result supports statements such that it is not possible to identify the race of an individual from the genetics of the individual.<ref>Lewontin RC: The apportionment of human diversity. Evol Biol 1972, 6:381-398.</ref><ref name=Risch>Risch, Neil; Burchard, Esteban; Ziv, Elad; Tang, Hua (2002). "Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and disease.". Genome Biology 3 (7) http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/gb-2002-3-7-comment2007</ref><ref name=AAA>American Anthropological Association, Statement on "Race", (May 17, 1998) http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm</ref><ref name=Edwards>Edwards AW (August 2003). "Human genetic diversity: Lewontin's fallacy". BioEssays 25 (8): 798–801. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bies.10315</ref><ref name=Risch/>

	Arguments against this include:		Arguments against this include:
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	Notably, [[Charles Darwin]] is now frequently misrepresented as a politically correct [[race denialist]], since he argued that the different human races are not different species. Darwin stated that "''There is, however, no doubt that the various races, when carefully compared and measured, differ much from each other,—as in the texture of the hair, the relative proportions of all parts of the body, the capacity of the lungs, the form and capacity of the skull, and even in the convolutions of the brain. But it would be an endless task to specify the numerous points of structural difference. The races differ also in constitution, in acclimatisation, and in liability to certain diseases. Their mental characteristics are likewise very distinct; chiefly as it would appear in their emotional, but partly in their intellectual, faculties.''"<ref>Charles Darwin. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. 1871. John Murray. http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F937.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=1</ref>		Notably, [[Charles Darwin]] is now frequently misrepresented as a politically correct [[race denialist]], since he argued that the different human races are not different species. Darwin stated that "''There is, however, no doubt that the various races, when carefully compared and measured, differ much from each other,—as in the texture of the hair, the relative proportions of all parts of the body, the capacity of the lungs, the form and capacity of the skull, and even in the convolutions of the brain. But it would be an endless task to specify the numerous points of structural difference. The races differ also in constitution, in acclimatisation, and in liability to certain diseases. Their mental characteristics are likewise very distinct; chiefly as it would appear in their emotional, but partly in their intellectual, faculties.''"<ref>Charles Darwin. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. 1871. John Murray. http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F937.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=1</ref>

	The ~~Jewish~~ anthropologist [[Franz Boas]] and [[Boasian anthropology]] had an influential role in changing the opinion of American anthropologists. In a very famous and influential study, he claimed extensive changes in cranial morphology for second-generation US immigrants. Recent studies have re-examined the data used by Boas and stated that Boas' claims are not supported his data. See the [[Craniometry]] article. More generally, [[Kevin MacDonald]] has argued in, for example, ''[[The Culture of Critique]]'', that many ~~Jewish~~ researchers and ~~Jewish~~ influenced intellectual movements have opposed the existence of genetic race differences (and in particular the existence of genetic [[race and intelligence]] differences) due to concern for perceived ~~Jewish~~ interests (such as possibly contributing to [[antisemitism]]).<ref name=tcoc>Kevin B. MacDonald. The Culture of Critique. 1998, 2002. 1st Books Library.</ref> Regardless, ~~Jews~~ are not a monolithic group and some ~~Jews~~ or persons with partial ~~Jewish~~ ancestry have supported genetic racial differences (for example, [[Arthur Jensen]], [[Michael Levin]], and [[Richard Herrnstein]]).		The jewish anthropologist [[Franz Boas]] and [[Boasian anthropology]] had an influential role in changing the opinion of American anthropologists. In a very famous and influential study, he claimed extensive changes in cranial morphology for second-generation US immigrants. Recent studies have re-examined the data used by Boas and stated that Boas' claims are not supported his data. See the [[Craniometry]] article. More generally, [[Kevin MacDonald]] has argued in, for example, ''[[The Culture of Critique]]'', that many jewish researchers and jewish influenced intellectual movements have opposed the existence of genetic race differences (and in particular the existence of genetic [[race and intelligence]] differences) due to concern for perceived jewish interests (such as possibly contributing to [[antisemitism]]).<ref name=tcoc>Kevin B. MacDonald. The Culture of Critique. 1998, 2002. 1st Books Library.</ref> Regardless, jews are not a monolithic group and some jews or persons with partial jewish ancestry have supported genetic racial differences (for example, [[Arthur Jensen]], [[Michael Levin]], and [[Richard Herrnstein]]).

	Recently, ~~Jewish~~ organizations and Israel have argued for large scale testing of ~~Jewish~~ ancestry for purposes such as determining which individuals genetically have the right to become Israeli citizens and in order to increase genetically based support for ~~Jews~~ and Israel, thus arguably at least implicitly acknowledging the existence of a ~~Jewish~~ race. See [[~~Jews~~#~~A_Jewish_race~~\|~~Jews~~: A ~~Jewish~~ race]].		Recently, jewish organizations and Israel have argued for large scale testing of jewish ancestry for purposes such as determining which individuals genetically have the right to become Israeli citizens and in order to increase genetically based support for jews and Israel, thus arguably at least implicitly acknowledging the existence of a jewish race. See [[jews#A_jewish_race\|jews: A jewish race]].

	Acceptance of the existence of races have often been much higher for non-American anthropologists and for non-anthropologists such as biologists. Even among American anthropologists, there are groups with a high acceptance, such as forensic anthropologists. Forensic anthropologists are a group of American anthropologists who themselves still study and practically use race, unlike many other groups of current American anthropologists. (See more detailed sections below for sources.)		Acceptance of the existence of races have often been much higher for non-American anthropologists and for non-anthropologists such as biologists. Even among American anthropologists, there are groups with a high acceptance, such as forensic anthropologists. Forensic anthropologists are a group of American anthropologists who themselves still study and practically use race, unlike many other groups of current American anthropologists. (See more detailed sections below for sources.)
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	== Declarations by UNESCO ==		== Declarations by UNESCO ==
	The [[United Nations]] agency [[UNESCO]] has published several declarations regarding race. UNESCO was after [[WWII]] officially requested to create a propaganda campaign, which should be "''disseminating scientific facts designed to remove what is generally known as racial prejudice''". UNESCO decided to create a declaration as a foundation for the campaign. In 1950, the declaration "[[The Race Question]]" was published. A majority of the authors were sociologists and the main author was the ~~Jewish~~ anthropologist [[Ashley Montagu]]. The declaration recognized the existence of races, but at the same time made many controversial claims and demands. The publication was followed by widespread criticisms by critics, who saw it as an attempt to politically decide what should be the scientific truth. In 1951, a somewhat less controversial revised version was published. None of the declarations cited any sources as support for the statements.<ref>"The Race Question". 1950. UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001229/122962eo.pdf</ref><ref>The Race Question in Modern Science. The Race Concept. Results of an Inquiry. UNESCO Pari 1952. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0007/000733/073351eo.pdf</ref><ref>Statement on the Nature of Race and Race Differences. 1951. UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001229/122962eo.pdf</ref>		The [[United Nations]] agency [[UNESCO]] has published several declarations regarding race. UNESCO was after [[WWII]] officially requested to create a propaganda campaign, which should be "''disseminating scientific facts designed to remove what is generally known as racial prejudice''". UNESCO decided to create a declaration as a foundation for the campaign. In 1950, the declaration "[[The Race Question]]" was published. A majority of the authors were sociologists and the main author was the jewish anthropologist [[Ashley Montagu]]. The declaration recognized the existence of races, but at the same time made many controversial claims and demands. The publication was followed by widespread criticisms by critics, who saw it as an attempt to politically decide what should be the scientific truth. In 1951, a somewhat less controversial revised version was published. None of the declarations cited any sources as support for the statements.<ref>"The Race Question". 1950. UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001229/122962eo.pdf</ref><ref>The Race Question in Modern Science. The Race Concept. Results of an Inquiry. UNESCO Pari 1952. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0007/000733/073351eo.pdf</ref><ref>Statement on the Nature of Race and Race Differences. 1951. UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001229/122962eo.pdf</ref>

	UNESCO has after this published several new declarations. The latest, which was published in 1978, completely dismissed the role of genetics regarding any controversial race difference. The declaration was authored by "''specialists in human rights''" (instead of by experts on race) and was "''adopted by the meeting of government representatives by consensus, without opposition or vote''" and without citing any supporting sources.<ref>Draft Declaration on race and racial prejudice, General Conference, Twentieth Session, Paris, 1978. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0002/000287/028739eb.pdf</ref><ref>Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice. 1978. UNESCO. http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=13161&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html</ref>		UNESCO has after this published several new declarations. The latest, which was published in 1978, completely dismissed the role of genetics regarding any controversial race difference. The declaration was authored by "''specialists in human rights''" (instead of by experts on race) and was "''adopted by the meeting of government representatives by consensus, without opposition or vote''" and without citing any supporting sources.<ref>Draft Declaration on race and racial prejudice, General Conference, Twentieth Session, Paris, 1978. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0002/000287/028739eb.pdf</ref><ref>Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice. 1978. UNESCO. http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=13161&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html</ref>