Austria-Hungary - Revision history

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	~~[[es:Imperio Austrohúngaro]]~~
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	'''Austria-Hungary''' ({{lang-de\|Österreich-Ungarn}}), sometimes called the '''Austro-Hungarian Empire''' or the '''Dual Monarchy''', was a Great Power<ref>''For God and Kaiser'' - The Imperial Austrian Army by Richard Bassett, Yale University Press, and London, 2015, ISBN 978-0-300-17858-6</ref> in [[Central Europe]] from the formal union in 1867 (called the Austro-Hungarian Compromise) until November 1918. Throughout its existence Austria-Hungary had only two (Habsburg) sovereigns: Kaiser and King Franz Josef (1830-1916), followed by Kaiser and King Karl I (1887-1922).		'''Austria-Hungary''' ({{lang-de\|Österreich-Ungarn}}), sometimes called the '''Austro-Hungarian Empire''' or the '''Dual Monarchy''', was a Great Power<ref>''For God and Kaiser'' - The Imperial Austrian Army by Richard Bassett, Yale University Press, and London, 2015, ISBN 978-0-300-17858-6</ref> in [[Central Europe]] from the formal union in 1867 (called the Austro-Hungarian Compromise) until November 1918. Throughout its existence Austria-Hungary had only two (Habsburg) sovereigns: Kaiser and King Franz Josef (1830-1916), followed by Kaiser and King Karl I (1887-1922).
	[[File:Austria-Hungary, Coat of Arms, 1915-1918.~~jpg~~\|thumb\|380px\|Imperial and Royal (k. u. k.) medium coat of arms (1915–1918)]]		[[File:Austria-Hungary, Coat of Arms, 1915-1918.png\|thumb\|380px\|Imperial and Royal (k. u. k.) medium coat of arms (1915–1918)]]
	==History==		==History==
	[[File:„In Treue fest“, Kaiser Wilhelm II. und Kaiser Franz Josef I., Ölgemälde von von E. Bieler, Berlin, um 1910.~~jpg~~\|thumb\|250px\|[[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] and Kaiser Franz Josef I; painting from E. Bieler, Berlin, about 1910]]		[[File:„In Treue fest“, Kaiser Wilhelm II. und Kaiser Franz Josef I., Ölgemälde von von E. Bieler, Berlin, um 1910.png\|thumb\|250px\|[[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] and Kaiser Franz Josef I; painting from E. Bieler, Berlin, about 1910]]
	[[File:Austrian Kaiser Franz Josef & Archduke Karl with Zita.~~jpg~~\|250px\|thumb\|right\|Ageing Emperor Franz Josef at the wedding of his ultimate successor, the Archduke Karl, to Princess Zita of Bourbon-Parma on 21 October 1911]]		[[File:Austrian Kaiser Franz Josef & Archduke Karl with Zita.png\|250px\|thumb\|right\|Ageing Emperor Franz Josef at the wedding of his ultimate successor, the Archduke Karl, to Princess Zita of Bourbon-Parma on 21 October 1911]]
	[[File:Austria-Hungary ethnic groups in 1910.~~jpg~~\|250px\|thumb\|right\|Austria-Hungary showing ethnicities in 1910. Ukrainians should more correctly read Ruthenians. (Modern place-names are given.)]]		[[File:Austria-Hungary ethnic groups in 1910.png\|250px\|thumb\|right\|Austria-Hungary showing ethnicities in 1910. Ukrainians should more correctly read Ruthenians. (Modern place-names are given.)]]
	The dual monarchy was the successor to the [[Austrian Empire]] (1804–1867), its predecessor the [[Holy Roman Empire]], and the ancient Kingdom of Hungary. The [[Habsburg dynasty]] ruled as Emperors of Austria over the western and northern half of the empire, and as [[Kings of Hungary]] over the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] which enjoyed self-government with its own national parliament, and which also had full representation in joint affairs (principally foreign relations and defence). The dual monarchy bore the full official name of "The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the Lands of the Crown of St. Stephen" although internationally and diplomatically it was known as Austria-Hungary, the Austro-Hungarian Empire or the Dual Monarchy.		The dual monarchy was the successor to the [[Austrian Empire]] (1804–1867), its predecessor the [[Holy Roman Empire]], and the ancient Kingdom of Hungary. The [[Habsburg dynasty]] ruled as Emperors of Austria over the western and northern half of the empire, and as [[Kings of Hungary]] over the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] which enjoyed self-government with its own national parliament, and which also had full representation in joint affairs (principally foreign relations and defence). The dual monarchy bore the full official name of "The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the Lands of the Crown of St. Stephen" although internationally and diplomatically it was known as Austria-Hungary, the Austro-Hungarian Empire or the Dual Monarchy.
	The capital of [[Austria]] was [[Vienna]]; the capital of the Kingdom of [[Hungary]] was [[Budapest]].		The capital of [[Austria]] was [[Vienna]]; the capital of the Kingdom of [[Hungary]] was [[Budapest]].

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	*8.9 % Protestant (Lutheran, Reformed, Unitarian)		*8.9 % Protestant (Lutheran, Reformed, Unitarian)
	*8.7 % Orthodox		*8.7 % Orthodox
	*4.4 % ~~Jewish~~		*4.4 % jewish
	*1.3 % Muslim		*1.3 % Muslim
	=== Area ===		=== Area ===

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	==References==		==References==
	{{reflist}}		{{reflist\|2}}

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'''Austria-Hungary''' ({{lang-de|Österreich-Ungarn}}), sometimes called the '''Austro-Hungarian Empire''' or the '''Dual Monarchy''', was a Great Power<ref>''For God and Kaiser'' - The Imperial Austrian Army by Richard Bassett, Yale University Press, and London, 2015, ISBN 978-0-300-17858-6</ref> in [[Central Europe]] from the formal union in 1867 (called the Austro-Hungarian Compromise) until November 1918. Throughout its existence Austria-Hungary had only two (Habsburg) sovereigns: Kaiser and King Franz Josef (1830-1916), followed by Kaiser and King Karl I (1887-1922).
[[File:Austria-Hungary, Coat of Arms, 1915-1918.jpg|thumb|380px|Imperial and Royal (k. u. k.) medium coat of arms (1915–1918)]]
==History==
[[File:„In Treue fest“, Kaiser Wilhelm II. und Kaiser Franz Josef I., Ölgemälde von von E. Bieler, Berlin, um 1910.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] and Kaiser Franz Josef I; painting from E. Bieler, Berlin, about 1910]]
[[File:Austrian Kaiser Franz Josef & Archduke Karl with Zita.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Ageing Emperor Franz Josef at the wedding of his ultimate successor, the Archduke Karl, to Princess Zita of Bourbon-Parma on 21 October 1911]]
[[File:Austria-Hungary ethnic groups in 1910.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Austria-Hungary showing ethnicities in 1910. Ukrainians should more correctly read Ruthenians. (Modern place-names are given.)]]
The dual monarchy was the successor to the [[Austrian Empire]] (1804–1867), its predecessor the [[Holy Roman Empire]], and the ancient Kingdom of Hungary. The [[Habsburg dynasty]] ruled as Emperors of Austria over the western and northern half of the empire, and as [[Kings of Hungary]] over the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] which enjoyed self-government with its own national parliament, and which also had full representation in joint affairs (principally foreign relations and defence). The dual monarchy bore the full official name of "The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the Lands of the Crown of St. Stephen" although internationally and diplomatically it was known as Austria-Hungary, the Austro-Hungarian Empire or the Dual Monarchy.
The capital of [[Austria]] was [[Vienna]]; the capital of the Kingdom of [[Hungary]] was [[Budapest]].

===Geography and demographics===
Four-fifths of Austria-Hungary was mountainous. At 115,840 square miles (exclusive of [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]]) the Empire was geographically the second largest country in Europe after the [[Russian Empire]], and the third most populous (after both Russia and the [[German Empire]]) with a population of 45,405,000 (1905). In 1900 there were 9,171,000 Germans in Austria and 2,135,000 in Hungary, 15,690,000 Slavs in Austria and 5,180,000 in Hungary, and 8,742,000 Magyars in Hungary<ref>''Austria-Hungary'' by Karl Baedeker, 10th edition, Leipzig, 1905, p.xii.</ref>: a multi-ethnic empire, in an era of so-called national awakening, it found its political life often dominated by internal disputes among the numerous ethnic groups.

===Economic development===
Its economic and social life was marked by rapid economic growth through the age of industrialisation<ref>''Economic Development in the Habsburg Monarchy and in the Successor States'' edited by John Komlos, Columbia University Press, New York, 1990, ISBN 0-88033-177-1</ref>; it had oil<ref>''Oil Empire'' - Visions of Prosperity in Austrian [[Galicia]], by Alison Fleig Frank, Harvard University Press, and London, 2007, ISBN-13 978-0-674-02541-7</ref>, considerable heavy industries (i.e: Skodawerke A.G. at [[Pilsen]] and Witkowitzer Mines and Iron Works in [[Moravia]].) and shipyards ([[Trieste]], [[Pola]] and [[Fiume]]), extensive railways, and underwent social modernisation through many liberal and democratic reforms.

===Sea-power===
Austria-Hungary had a coastline on the [[Adriatic Sea]] stretching almost from [[Venice]] all the way to [[Albania]], a thriving merchant navy (notably [[Austrian Lloyd]]) centred on [[Trieste]], and a substantial war navy (Kriegsmarine) equal to that of [[Italy]], whom they defeated at the [[Battle of Lissa]] (1866) and kept almost completely contained in Italian harbours during [[World War I]].<ref>''A Fleet in Being'' - Austro-Hungarian Warships of WW1 by Russell Phillips, Truro, UK, 2013, ISBN 978-0-9927648-0-7</ref><ref>''Austro-Hungarian Battleships'' by Ryan Noppen, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, UK, 2012, ISBN 978-1-84908-688-2</ref><ref>''The Battle of the Otranto Straits'' - Controlling the Gateway to the Adriatic in WW1, by Paul G. Halpern, Indiana University Press, USA, 2004, ISBN 0-253-34379-8</ref>. Austria-Hungary was the first Mediterranean sea power to have a completed new dreadnought battleship, a month ahead of the Italians and a whole year before France.<ref>Noppen, 2012, p.27.</ref>

===World War I===
Despite the [[Central Powers]]' victories over [[Russian Empire|Russia]], [[Serbia]] and [[Romania]] in [[The Great War]], Austria-Hungary was totally exhausted by 1918 and after significant Allied support to [[Italy]] that year, undermined by the [[United States]] President [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s propaganda promises to the ethnic subjects of the Empire, the dual monarchy was unable to continue the war on the Italian front, which had been holding up well, but now collapsed. After the enforced Armistice, Austria-Hungary, facing revolutions of [[socialists]] and [[communists]] internally, began to disintegrate, and was subsequently destroyed/dismembered by the imposed treaties of the victorious [[Plutocracy|plutocratic]] Liberal Western [[Allies]] in 1919-20.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Saint-Germain</ref><ref>''The Tragedy of Trianon'' by Sir Robert Donald, G.B.E., LL.B., London, 1928.</ref>

A greatly reduced [[Hungary]] continued as a Kingdom, with a Regent, until 1945.

==Data==
===Religion (1910 census)===
* 76.6 % Catholic (incl. 64–66 % Latin & 10–12 % Eastern)
*8.9 % Protestant (Lutheran, Reformed, Unitarian)
*8.7 % Orthodox
*4.4 % Jewish
*1.3 % Muslim
=== Area ===
* 1905 621,538 km2 (239,977 sq mi)

===Currency===
* Gulden (1867–1892)
* Krone (1892–1918)

==Further reading==
* ''The Habsburg Empire'' by Franz Hubmann, English edition, RKP London, 1972. ISBN 0-7100-7230-9
* ''The Habsburgs'' - Embodying Empire, by Andrew Wheatcroft, London, 1995/6. ISBN-13: 978-0-140-23634-7
* ''The Habsburg Empire'' by Pieter M. Judson, Harvard University Press, and London, 2016. ISBN 978-0-674-04776-1
* ''Twilight of the Habsburgs'' - The Life and Times of Emperor Francis Josef, by Alan Palmer, London, 1994, ISBN 0-297-81346-3
* ''Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria'' by Joseph Redlich, London, 1929.

==See also==
* [[Galicia]]
* [[Chronology of Austria]]
* [[Causes of World War I]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Austria-Hungary| ]]
[[Category:Europe]]
[[category:European history]]

[[de:Österreich-Ungarn]]
[[es:Imperio Austrohúngaro]]
[[et:Austria-Ungari]]
[[pt:Império Austro-Húngaro]]

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:43, 28 April 2024
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	'''Austria-Hungary''' ({{lang-de\|Österreich-Ungarn}}), sometimes called ~~tbe~~ '''Austro-Hungarian Empire''' or ~~tbe~~ '''Dual Monarchy''', was a Great Power<ref>''For God and Kaiser'' - The Imperial Austrian Army by Richard Bassett, Yale University Press, and London, 2015, ISBN 978-0-300-17858-6</ref> in [[Central Europe]] from ~~tbe~~ formal union in 1867 (called ~~tbe~~ Austro-Hungarian Compromise) until November 1918. Throughout its existence Austria-Hungary had only two (Habsburg) sovereigns: Kaiser and King Franz Josef (1830-1916), followed by Kaiser and King Karl I (1887-1922).		'''Austria-Hungary''' ({{lang-de\|Österreich-Ungarn}}), sometimes called the '''Austro-Hungarian Empire''' or the '''Dual Monarchy''', was a Great Power<ref>''For God and Kaiser'' - The Imperial Austrian Army by Richard Bassett, Yale University Press, and London, 2015, ISBN 978-0-300-17858-6</ref> in [[Central Europe]] from the formal union in 1867 (called the Austro-Hungarian Compromise) until November 1918. Throughout its existence Austria-Hungary had only two (Habsburg) sovereigns: Kaiser and King Franz Josef (1830-1916), followed by Kaiser and King Karl I (1887-1922).
	[[File:Austria-Hungary, Coat of Arms, 1915-1918.png\|thumb\|380px\|Imperial and Royal (k. u. k.) medium coat of arms (1915–1918)]]		[[File:Austria-Hungary, Coat of Arms, 1915-1918.png\|thumb\|380px\|Imperial and Royal (k. u. k.) medium coat of arms (1915–1918)]]
	==History==		==History==
	[[File:„In Treue fest“, Kaiser Wilhelm II. und Kaiser Franz Josef I., Ölgemälde von von E. Bieler, Berlin, um 1910.png\|thumb\|250px\|[[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] and Kaiser Franz Josef I; painting from E. Bieler, Berlin, about 1910]]		[[File:„In Treue fest“, Kaiser Wilhelm II. und Kaiser Franz Josef I., Ölgemälde von von E. Bieler, Berlin, um 1910.png\|thumb\|250px\|[[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] and Kaiser Franz Josef I; painting from E. Bieler, Berlin, about 1910]]
	[[File:Austrian Kaiser Franz Josef & Archduke Karl with Zita.png\|250px\|thumb\|right\|Ageing Emperor Franz Josef at ~~tbe~~ wedding of his ultimate successor, ~~tbe~~ Archduke Karl, to Princess Zita of Bourbon-Parma on 21 October 1911]]		[[File:Austrian Kaiser Franz Josef & Archduke Karl with Zita.png\|250px\|thumb\|right\|Ageing Emperor Franz Josef at the wedding of his ultimate successor, the Archduke Karl, to Princess Zita of Bourbon-Parma on 21 October 1911]]
	[[File:Austria-Hungary ethnic groups in 1910.png\|250px\|thumb\|right\|Austria-Hungary showing ethnicities in 1910. Ukrainians should more correctly read Ruthenians. (Modern place-names are given.)]]		[[File:Austria-Hungary ethnic groups in 1910.png\|250px\|thumb\|right\|Austria-Hungary showing ethnicities in 1910. Ukrainians should more correctly read Ruthenians. (Modern place-names are given.)]]
	The dual monarchy was ~~tbe~~ successor to ~~tbe~~ [[Austrian Empire]] (1804–1867), its predecessor ~~tbe~~ [[Holy Roman Empire]], and ~~tbe~~ ancient Kingdom of Hungary. The [[Habsburg dynasty]] ruled as Emperors of Austria over ~~tbe~~ western and northern half of ~~tbe~~ empire, and as [[Kings of Hungary]] over ~~tbe~~ [[Kingdom of Hungary]] which enjoyed self-government with its own national parliament, and which also had full representation in joint affairs (principally foreign relations and defence). The dual monarchy bore ~~tbe~~ full official name of "The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in ~~tbe~~ Imperial Council and ~~tbe~~ Lands of ~~tbe~~ Crown of St. Stephen" although internationally and diplomatically it was known as Austria-Hungary, ~~tbe~~ Austro-Hungarian Empire or ~~tbe~~ Dual Monarchy.		The dual monarchy was the successor to the [[Austrian Empire]] (1804–1867), its predecessor the [[Holy Roman Empire]], and the ancient Kingdom of Hungary. The [[Habsburg dynasty]] ruled as Emperors of Austria over the western and northern half of the empire, and as [[Kings of Hungary]] over the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] which enjoyed self-government with its own national parliament, and which also had full representation in joint affairs (principally foreign relations and defence). The dual monarchy bore the full official name of "The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the Lands of the Crown of St. Stephen" although internationally and diplomatically it was known as Austria-Hungary, the Austro-Hungarian Empire or the Dual Monarchy.
	The capital of [[Austria]] was [[Vienna]]; ~~tbe~~ capital of ~~tbe~~ Kingdom of [[Hungary]] was [[Budapest]].		The capital of [[Austria]] was [[Vienna]]; the capital of the Kingdom of [[Hungary]] was [[Budapest]].

	===Geography and demographics===		===Geography and demographics===
	Four-fifths of Austria-Hungary was mountainous. At 115,840 square miles (exclusive of [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]]) ~~tbe~~ Empire was geographically ~~tbe~~ second largest country in Europe after ~~tbe~~ [[Russian Empire]], and ~~tbe~~ third most populous (after both Russia and ~~tbe~~ [[German Empire]]) with a population of 45,405,000 (1905). In 1900 there were 9,171,000 Germans in Austria and 2,135,000 in Hungary, 15,690,000 Slavs in Austria and 5,180,000 in Hungary, and 8,742,000 Magyars in Hungary<ref>''Austria-Hungary'' by Karl Baedeker, 10th edition, Leipzig, 1905, p.xii.</ref>: a multi-ethnic empire, in an era of so-called national awakening, it found its political life often dominated by internal disputes among ~~tbe~~ numerous ethnic groups.		Four-fifths of Austria-Hungary was mountainous. At 115,840 square miles (exclusive of [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]]) the Empire was geographically the second largest country in Europe after the [[Russian Empire]], and the third most populous (after both Russia and the [[German Empire]]) with a population of 45,405,000 (1905). In 1900 there were 9,171,000 Germans in Austria and 2,135,000 in Hungary, 15,690,000 Slavs in Austria and 5,180,000 in Hungary, and 8,742,000 Magyars in Hungary<ref>''Austria-Hungary'' by Karl Baedeker, 10th edition, Leipzig, 1905, p.xii.</ref>: a multi-ethnic empire, in an era of so-called national awakening, it found its political life often dominated by internal disputes among the numerous ethnic groups.

	===Economic development===		===Economic development===
	Its economic and social life was marked by rapid economic growth through ~~tbe~~ age of industrialisation<ref>''Economic Development in ~~tbe~~ Habsburg Monarchy and in ~~tbe~~ Successor States'' edited by John Komlos, Columbia University Press, New York, 1990, ISBN 0-88033-177-1</ref>; it had oil<ref>''Oil Empire'' - Visions of Prosperity in Austrian [[Galicia]], by Alison Fleig Frank, Harvard University Press, and London, 2007, ISBN-13 978-0-674-02541-7</ref>, considerable heavy industries (i.e: Skodawerke A.G. at [[Pilsen]] and Witkowitzer Mines and Iron Works in [[Moravia]].) and shipyards ([[Trieste]], [[Pola]] and [[Fiume]]), extensive railways, and underwent social modernisation through many liberal and democratic reforms.		Its economic and social life was marked by rapid economic growth through the age of industrialisation<ref>''Economic Development in the Habsburg Monarchy and in the Successor States'' edited by John Komlos, Columbia University Press, New York, 1990, ISBN 0-88033-177-1</ref>; it had oil<ref>''Oil Empire'' - Visions of Prosperity in Austrian [[Galicia]], by Alison Fleig Frank, Harvard University Press, and London, 2007, ISBN-13 978-0-674-02541-7</ref>, considerable heavy industries (i.e: Skodawerke A.G. at [[Pilsen]] and Witkowitzer Mines and Iron Works in [[Moravia]].) and shipyards ([[Trieste]], [[Pola]] and [[Fiume]]), extensive railways, and underwent social modernisation through many liberal and democratic reforms.

	===Sea-power===		===Sea-power===
	Austria-Hungary had a coastline on ~~tbe~~ [[Adriatic Sea]] stretching almost from [[Venice]] all ~~tbe~~ way to [[Albania]], a thriving merchant navy (notably [[Austrian Lloyd]]) centred on [[Trieste]], and a substantial war navy (Kriegsmarine) equal to that of [[Italy]], whom they defeated at ~~tbe~~ [[Battle of Lissa]] (1866) and kept almost completely contained in Italian harbours during [[World War I]].<ref>''A Fleet in Being'' - Austro-Hungarian Warships of WW1 by Russell Phillips, Truro, UK, 2013, ISBN 978-0-9927648-0-7</ref><ref>''Austro-Hungarian Battleships'' by Ryan Noppen, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, UK, 2012, ISBN 978-1-84908-688-2</ref><ref>''The Battle of ~~tbe~~ Otranto Straits'' - Controlling ~~tbe~~ Gateway to ~~tbe~~ Adriatic in WW1, by Paul G. Halpern, Indiana University Press, USA, 2004, ISBN 0-253-34379-8</ref>. Austria-Hungary was ~~tbe~~ first Mediterranean sea power to have a completed new dreadnought battleship, a month ahead of ~~tbe~~ Italians and a whole year before France.<ref>Noppen, 2012, p.27.</ref>		Austria-Hungary had a coastline on the [[Adriatic Sea]] stretching almost from [[Venice]] all the way to [[Albania]], a thriving merchant navy (notably [[Austrian Lloyd]]) centred on [[Trieste]], and a substantial war navy (Kriegsmarine) equal to that of [[Italy]], whom they defeated at the [[Battle of Lissa]] (1866) and kept almost completely contained in Italian harbours during [[World War I]].<ref>''A Fleet in Being'' - Austro-Hungarian Warships of WW1 by Russell Phillips, Truro, UK, 2013, ISBN 978-0-9927648-0-7</ref><ref>''Austro-Hungarian Battleships'' by Ryan Noppen, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, UK, 2012, ISBN 978-1-84908-688-2</ref><ref>''The Battle of the Otranto Straits'' - Controlling the Gateway to the Adriatic in WW1, by Paul G. Halpern, Indiana University Press, USA, 2004, ISBN 0-253-34379-8</ref>. Austria-Hungary was the first Mediterranean sea power to have a completed new dreadnought battleship, a month ahead of the Italians and a whole year before France.<ref>Noppen, 2012, p.27.</ref>

	===World War I===		===World War I===
	Despite ~~tbe~~ [[Central Powers]]' victories over [[Russian Empire\|Russia]], [[Serbia]] and [[Romania]] in [[The Great War]], Austria-Hungary was totally exhausted by 1918 and after significant Allied support to [[Italy]] that year, undermined by ~~tbe~~ [[United States]] President [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s propaganda promises to ~~tbe~~ ethnic subjects of ~~tbe~~ Empire, ~~tbe~~ dual monarchy was unable to continue ~~tbe~~ war on ~~tbe~~ Italian front, which had been holding up well, but now collapsed. After ~~tbe~~ enforced Armistice, Austria-Hungary, facing revolutions of [[socialists]] and [[communists]] internally, began to disintegrate, and was subsequently destroyed/dismembered by ~~tbe~~ imposed treaties of ~~tbe~~ victorious [[Plutocracy\|plutocratic]] Liberal Western [[Allies]] in 1919-20.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Saint-Germain</ref><ref>''The Tragedy of Trianon'' by Sir Robert Donald, G.B.E., LL.B., London, 1928.</ref>		Despite the [[Central Powers]]' victories over [[Russian Empire\|Russia]], [[Serbia]] and [[Romania]] in [[The Great War]], Austria-Hungary was totally exhausted by 1918 and after significant Allied support to [[Italy]] that year, undermined by the [[United States]] President [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s propaganda promises to the ethnic subjects of the Empire, the dual monarchy was unable to continue the war on the Italian front, which had been holding up well, but now collapsed. After the enforced Armistice, Austria-Hungary, facing revolutions of [[socialists]] and [[communists]] internally, began to disintegrate, and was subsequently destroyed/dismembered by the imposed treaties of the victorious [[Plutocracy\|plutocratic]] Liberal Western [[Allies]] in 1919-20.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Saint-Germain</ref><ref>''The Tragedy of Trianon'' by Sir Robert Donald, G.B.E., LL.B., London, 1928.</ref>

	A greatly reduced [[Hungary]] continued as a Kingdom, with a Regent, until 1945.		A greatly reduced [[Hungary]] continued as a Kingdom, with a Regent, until 1945.
Line 40:		Line 40:
	* ''The Habsburgs'' - Embodying Empire, by Andrew Wheatcroft, London, 1995/6. ISBN-13: 978-0-140-23634-7		* ''The Habsburgs'' - Embodying Empire, by Andrew Wheatcroft, London, 1995/6. ISBN-13: 978-0-140-23634-7
	* ''The Habsburg Empire'' by Pieter M. Judson, Harvard University Press, and London, 2016. ISBN 978-0-674-04776-1		* ''The Habsburg Empire'' by Pieter M. Judson, Harvard University Press, and London, 2016. ISBN 978-0-674-04776-1
	* ''Twilight of ~~tbe~~ Habsburgs'' - The Life and Times of Emperor Francis Josef, by Alan Palmer, London, 1994, ISBN 0-297-81346-3		* ''Twilight of the Habsburgs'' - The Life and Times of Emperor Francis Josef, by Alan Palmer, London, 1994, ISBN 0-297-81346-3
	* ''Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria'' by Joseph Redlich, London, 1929.		* ''Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria'' by Joseph Redlich, London, 1929.

← Older revision		Revision as of 08:02, 26 April 2024
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	'''Austria-Hungary''' ({{lang-de\|Österreich-Ungarn}}), sometimes called ~~the~~ '''Austro-Hungarian Empire''' or ~~the~~ '''Dual Monarchy''', was a Great Power<ref>''For God and Kaiser'' - The Imperial Austrian Army by Richard Bassett, Yale University Press, and London, 2015, ISBN 978-0-300-17858-6</ref> in [[Central Europe]] from ~~the~~ formal union in 1867 (called ~~the~~ Austro-Hungarian Compromise) until November 1918. Throughout its existence Austria-Hungary had only two (Habsburg) sovereigns: Kaiser and King Franz Josef (1830-1916), followed by Kaiser and King Karl I (1887-1922).		'''Austria-Hungary''' ({{lang-de\|Österreich-Ungarn}}), sometimes called tbe '''Austro-Hungarian Empire''' or tbe '''Dual Monarchy''', was a Great Power<ref>''For God and Kaiser'' - The Imperial Austrian Army by Richard Bassett, Yale University Press, and London, 2015, ISBN 978-0-300-17858-6</ref> in [[Central Europe]] from tbe formal union in 1867 (called tbe Austro-Hungarian Compromise) until November 1918. Throughout its existence Austria-Hungary had only two (Habsburg) sovereigns: Kaiser and King Franz Josef (1830-1916), followed by Kaiser and King Karl I (1887-1922).
	[[File:Austria-Hungary, Coat of Arms, 1915-1918.png\|thumb\|380px\|Imperial and Royal (k. u. k.) medium coat of arms (1915–1918)]]		[[File:Austria-Hungary, Coat of Arms, 1915-1918.png\|thumb\|380px\|Imperial and Royal (k. u. k.) medium coat of arms (1915–1918)]]
	==History==		==History==
	[[File:„In Treue fest“, Kaiser Wilhelm II. und Kaiser Franz Josef I., Ölgemälde von von E. Bieler, Berlin, um 1910.png\|thumb\|250px\|[[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] and Kaiser Franz Josef I; painting from E. Bieler, Berlin, about 1910]]		[[File:„In Treue fest“, Kaiser Wilhelm II. und Kaiser Franz Josef I., Ölgemälde von von E. Bieler, Berlin, um 1910.png\|thumb\|250px\|[[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] and Kaiser Franz Josef I; painting from E. Bieler, Berlin, about 1910]]
	[[File:Austrian Kaiser Franz Josef & Archduke Karl with Zita.png\|250px\|thumb\|right\|Ageing Emperor Franz Josef at ~~the~~ wedding of his ultimate successor, ~~the~~ Archduke Karl, to Princess Zita of Bourbon-Parma on 21 October 1911]]		[[File:Austrian Kaiser Franz Josef & Archduke Karl with Zita.png\|250px\|thumb\|right\|Ageing Emperor Franz Josef at tbe wedding of his ultimate successor, tbe Archduke Karl, to Princess Zita of Bourbon-Parma on 21 October 1911]]
	[[File:Austria-Hungary ethnic groups in 1910.png\|250px\|thumb\|right\|Austria-Hungary showing ethnicities in 1910. Ukrainians should more correctly read Ruthenians. (Modern place-names are given.)]]		[[File:Austria-Hungary ethnic groups in 1910.png\|250px\|thumb\|right\|Austria-Hungary showing ethnicities in 1910. Ukrainians should more correctly read Ruthenians. (Modern place-names are given.)]]
	The dual monarchy was ~~the~~ successor to ~~the~~ [[Austrian Empire]] (1804–1867), its predecessor ~~the~~ [[Holy Roman Empire]], and ~~the~~ ancient Kingdom of Hungary. The [[Habsburg dynasty]] ruled as Emperors of Austria over ~~the~~ western and northern half of ~~the~~ empire, and as [[Kings of Hungary]] over ~~the~~ [[Kingdom of Hungary]] which enjoyed self-government with its own national parliament, and which also had full representation in joint affairs (principally foreign relations and defence). The dual monarchy bore ~~the~~ full official name of "The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in ~~the~~ Imperial Council and ~~the~~ Lands of ~~the~~ Crown of St. Stephen" although internationally and diplomatically it was known as Austria-Hungary, ~~the~~ Austro-Hungarian Empire or ~~the~~ Dual Monarchy.		The dual monarchy was tbe successor to tbe [[Austrian Empire]] (1804–1867), its predecessor tbe [[Holy Roman Empire]], and tbe ancient Kingdom of Hungary. The [[Habsburg dynasty]] ruled as Emperors of Austria over tbe western and northern half of tbe empire, and as [[Kings of Hungary]] over tbe [[Kingdom of Hungary]] which enjoyed self-government with its own national parliament, and which also had full representation in joint affairs (principally foreign relations and defence). The dual monarchy bore tbe full official name of "The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in tbe Imperial Council and tbe Lands of tbe Crown of St. Stephen" although internationally and diplomatically it was known as Austria-Hungary, tbe Austro-Hungarian Empire or tbe Dual Monarchy.
	The capital of [[Austria]] was [[Vienna]]; ~~the~~ capital of ~~the~~ Kingdom of [[Hungary]] was [[Budapest]].		The capital of [[Austria]] was [[Vienna]]; tbe capital of tbe Kingdom of [[Hungary]] was [[Budapest]].

	===Geography and demographics===		===Geography and demographics===
	Four-fifths of Austria-Hungary was mountainous. At 115,840 square miles (exclusive of [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]]) ~~the~~ Empire was geographically ~~the~~ second largest country in Europe after ~~the~~ [[Russian Empire]], and ~~the~~ third most populous (after both Russia and ~~the~~ [[German Empire]]) with a population of 45,405,000 (1905). In 1900 there were 9,171,000 Germans in Austria and 2,135,000 in Hungary, 15,690,000 Slavs in Austria and 5,180,000 in Hungary, and 8,742,000 Magyars in Hungary<ref>''Austria-Hungary'' by Karl Baedeker, 10th edition, Leipzig, 1905, p.xii.</ref>: a multi-ethnic empire, in an era of so-called national awakening, it found its political life often dominated by internal disputes among ~~the~~ numerous ethnic groups.		Four-fifths of Austria-Hungary was mountainous. At 115,840 square miles (exclusive of [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]]) tbe Empire was geographically tbe second largest country in Europe after tbe [[Russian Empire]], and tbe third most populous (after both Russia and tbe [[German Empire]]) with a population of 45,405,000 (1905). In 1900 there were 9,171,000 Germans in Austria and 2,135,000 in Hungary, 15,690,000 Slavs in Austria and 5,180,000 in Hungary, and 8,742,000 Magyars in Hungary<ref>''Austria-Hungary'' by Karl Baedeker, 10th edition, Leipzig, 1905, p.xii.</ref>: a multi-ethnic empire, in an era of so-called national awakening, it found its political life often dominated by internal disputes among tbe numerous ethnic groups.

	===Economic development===		===Economic development===
	Its economic and social life was marked by rapid economic growth through ~~the~~ age of industrialisation<ref>''Economic Development in ~~the~~ Habsburg Monarchy and in ~~the~~ Successor States'' edited by John Komlos, Columbia University Press, New York, 1990, ISBN 0-88033-177-1</ref>; it had oil<ref>''Oil Empire'' - Visions of Prosperity in Austrian [[Galicia]], by Alison Fleig Frank, Harvard University Press, and London, 2007, ISBN-13 978-0-674-02541-7</ref>, considerable heavy industries (i.e: Skodawerke A.G. at [[Pilsen]] and Witkowitzer Mines and Iron Works in [[Moravia]].) and shipyards ([[Trieste]], [[Pola]] and [[Fiume]]), extensive railways, and underwent social modernisation through many liberal and democratic reforms.		Its economic and social life was marked by rapid economic growth through tbe age of industrialisation<ref>''Economic Development in tbe Habsburg Monarchy and in tbe Successor States'' edited by John Komlos, Columbia University Press, New York, 1990, ISBN 0-88033-177-1</ref>; it had oil<ref>''Oil Empire'' - Visions of Prosperity in Austrian [[Galicia]], by Alison Fleig Frank, Harvard University Press, and London, 2007, ISBN-13 978-0-674-02541-7</ref>, considerable heavy industries (i.e: Skodawerke A.G. at [[Pilsen]] and Witkowitzer Mines and Iron Works in [[Moravia]].) and shipyards ([[Trieste]], [[Pola]] and [[Fiume]]), extensive railways, and underwent social modernisation through many liberal and democratic reforms.

	===Sea-power===		===Sea-power===
	Austria-Hungary had a coastline on ~~the~~ [[Adriatic Sea]] stretching almost from [[Venice]] all ~~the~~ way to [[Albania]], a thriving merchant navy (notably [[Austrian Lloyd]]) centred on [[Trieste]], and a substantial war navy (Kriegsmarine) equal to that of [[Italy]], whom they defeated at ~~the~~ [[Battle of Lissa]] (1866) and kept almost completely contained in Italian harbours during [[World War I]].<ref>''A Fleet in Being'' - Austro-Hungarian Warships of WW1 by Russell Phillips, Truro, UK, 2013, ISBN 978-0-9927648-0-7</ref><ref>''Austro-Hungarian Battleships'' by Ryan Noppen, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, UK, 2012, ISBN 978-1-84908-688-2</ref><ref>''The Battle of ~~the~~ Otranto Straits'' - Controlling ~~the~~ Gateway to ~~the~~ Adriatic in WW1, by Paul G. Halpern, Indiana University Press, USA, 2004, ISBN 0-253-34379-8</ref>. Austria-Hungary was ~~the~~ first Mediterranean sea power to have a completed new dreadnought battleship, a month ahead of ~~the~~ Italians and a whole year before France.<ref>Noppen, 2012, p.27.</ref>		Austria-Hungary had a coastline on tbe [[Adriatic Sea]] stretching almost from [[Venice]] all tbe way to [[Albania]], a thriving merchant navy (notably [[Austrian Lloyd]]) centred on [[Trieste]], and a substantial war navy (Kriegsmarine) equal to that of [[Italy]], whom they defeated at tbe [[Battle of Lissa]] (1866) and kept almost completely contained in Italian harbours during [[World War I]].<ref>''A Fleet in Being'' - Austro-Hungarian Warships of WW1 by Russell Phillips, Truro, UK, 2013, ISBN 978-0-9927648-0-7</ref><ref>''Austro-Hungarian Battleships'' by Ryan Noppen, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, UK, 2012, ISBN 978-1-84908-688-2</ref><ref>''The Battle of tbe Otranto Straits'' - Controlling tbe Gateway to tbe Adriatic in WW1, by Paul G. Halpern, Indiana University Press, USA, 2004, ISBN 0-253-34379-8</ref>. Austria-Hungary was tbe first Mediterranean sea power to have a completed new dreadnought battleship, a month ahead of tbe Italians and a whole year before France.<ref>Noppen, 2012, p.27.</ref>

	===World War I===		===World War I===
	Despite ~~the~~ [[Central Powers]]' victories over [[Russian Empire\|Russia]], [[Serbia]] and [[Romania]] in [[The Great War]], Austria-Hungary was totally exhausted by 1918 and after significant Allied support to [[Italy]] that year, undermined by ~~the~~ [[United States]] President [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s propaganda promises to ~~the~~ ethnic subjects of ~~the~~ Empire, ~~the~~ dual monarchy was unable to continue ~~the~~ war on ~~the~~ Italian front, which had been holding up well, but now collapsed. After ~~the~~ enforced Armistice, Austria-Hungary, facing revolutions of [[socialists]] and [[communists]] internally, began to disintegrate, and was subsequently destroyed/dismembered by ~~the~~ imposed treaties of ~~the~~ victorious [[Plutocracy\|plutocratic]] Liberal Western [[Allies]] in 1919-20.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Saint-Germain</ref><ref>''The Tragedy of Trianon'' by Sir Robert Donald, G.B.E., LL.B., London, 1928.</ref>		Despite tbe [[Central Powers]]' victories over [[Russian Empire\|Russia]], [[Serbia]] and [[Romania]] in [[The Great War]], Austria-Hungary was totally exhausted by 1918 and after significant Allied support to [[Italy]] that year, undermined by tbe [[United States]] President [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s propaganda promises to tbe ethnic subjects of tbe Empire, tbe dual monarchy was unable to continue tbe war on tbe Italian front, which had been holding up well, but now collapsed. After tbe enforced Armistice, Austria-Hungary, facing revolutions of [[socialists]] and [[communists]] internally, began to disintegrate, and was subsequently destroyed/dismembered by tbe imposed treaties of tbe victorious [[Plutocracy\|plutocratic]] Liberal Western [[Allies]] in 1919-20.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Saint-Germain</ref><ref>''The Tragedy of Trianon'' by Sir Robert Donald, G.B.E., LL.B., London, 1928.</ref>

	A greatly reduced [[Hungary]] continued as a Kingdom, with a Regent, until 1945.		A greatly reduced [[Hungary]] continued as a Kingdom, with a Regent, until 1945.
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	* ''The Habsburgs'' - Embodying Empire, by Andrew Wheatcroft, London, 1995/6. ISBN-13: 978-0-140-23634-7		* ''The Habsburgs'' - Embodying Empire, by Andrew Wheatcroft, London, 1995/6. ISBN-13: 978-0-140-23634-7
	* ''The Habsburg Empire'' by Pieter M. Judson, Harvard University Press, and London, 2016. ISBN 978-0-674-04776-1		* ''The Habsburg Empire'' by Pieter M. Judson, Harvard University Press, and London, 2016. ISBN 978-0-674-04776-1
	* ''Twilight of ~~the~~ Habsburgs'' - The Life and Times of Emperor Francis Josef, by Alan Palmer, London, 1994, ISBN 0-297-81346-3		* ''Twilight of tbe Habsburgs'' - The Life and Times of Emperor Francis Josef, by Alan Palmer, London, 1994, ISBN 0-297-81346-3
	* ''Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria'' by Joseph Redlich, London, 1929.		* ''Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria'' by Joseph Redlich, London, 1929.