Battle of the Teutoburg Forest - Revision history

Bacchus: Text replacement - "tbe " to "the "

2024-04-28T23:16:30Z

Text replacement - "tbe " to "the "

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:16, 28 April 2024
Line 1:		Line 1:
	[[File:Otto Albert Koch Varusschlacht, 1909 (Lippisches Landesmuseum Detmold).png\|thumb\|300px\|Otto Albert Koch: "Varusschlacht", artwork 1909 (Lippisches Landesmuseum Detmold)]]		[[File:Otto Albert Koch Varusschlacht, 1909 (Lippisches Landesmuseum Detmold).png\|thumb\|300px\|Otto Albert Koch: "Varusschlacht", artwork 1909 (Lippisches Landesmuseum Detmold)]]
	The '''Battle of ~~tbe~~ Teutoburg Forest''' (8–11 September 9 AD) was a major defeat for [[Ancient Rome]], with three legions, six infantry cohorts and three auxiliary cavalry wings (20,000+ men) under Publius Quinctilius Varus being annihilated, bringing ~~tbe~~ triumphant period of expansion under Augustus to an abrupt end. The [[Germanic peoples\|Germanic]] forces were led by [[Hermann]] (Latin: ''Arminius''). The Roman Empire would launch no other major incursion into Germania until Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) during ~~tbe~~ Marcomannic Wars. Some of ~~tbe~~ descendants of ~~tbe~~ vassal kingdoms, like ~~tbe~~ Suebi (by suzerainty), that Augustus tried to create in [[Germania]] to expand ~~tbe~~ ''romanitas'' and ~~tbe~~ Empire would be ~~tbe~~ ones that [[Conquest of ~~tbe~~ Roman Empire\|conquered ~~tbe~~ Empire in ~~tbe~~ fourth and fifth centuries]]. The outcome of this battle and ~~tbe~~ crushing Roman defeat dissuaded ~~tbe~~ Romans from their ambition of conquering Germania, and is thus considered one of ~~tbe~~ most important events in [[European history]], creating ~~tbe~~ [[Latin]]-[[Germanic]] divide that persists in Western Europe to this day.		The '''Battle of the Teutoburg Forest''' (8–11 September 9 AD) was a major defeat for [[Ancient Rome]], with three legions, six infantry cohorts and three auxiliary cavalry wings (20,000+ men) under Publius Quinctilius Varus being annihilated, bringing the triumphant period of expansion under Augustus to an abrupt end. The [[Germanic peoples\|Germanic]] forces were led by [[Hermann]] (Latin: ''Arminius''). The Roman Empire would launch no other major incursion into Germania until Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) during the Marcomannic Wars. Some of the descendants of the vassal kingdoms, like the Suebi (by suzerainty), that Augustus tried to create in [[Germania]] to expand the ''romanitas'' and the Empire would be the ones that [[Conquest of the Roman Empire\|conquered the Empire in the fourth and fifth centuries]]. The outcome of this battle and the crushing Roman defeat dissuaded the Romans from their ambition of conquering Germania, and is thus considered one of the most important events in [[European history]], creating the [[Latin]]-[[Germanic]] divide that persists in Western Europe to this day.

	==History==		==History==
	[[File:Battle of Teutoburg Forest Map.png\|right\|310px]]		[[File:Battle of Teutoburg Forest Map.png\|right\|310px]]
	[[File:Battle of ~~tbe~~ Teutoburg Forest II.png\|right\|310px]]		[[File:Battle of the Teutoburg Forest II.png\|right\|310px]]
	The Roman Emperor [[Augustus]] likely had intended to conquer ~~tbe~~ German region between ~~tbe~~ Rhine and Elbe rivers, with this being prevented by ~~tbe~~ defeat. [[Tacitus]] described Hermann as “unquestionably ~~tbe~~ liberator of Germany”.		The Roman Emperor [[Augustus]] likely had intended to conquer the German region between the Rhine and Elbe rivers, with this being prevented by the defeat. [[Tacitus]] described Hermann as “unquestionably the liberator of Germany”.

	: ''At ~~tbe~~ Battle of Teutoburg Forest (aka Battle of Varus), c. 9 CE, a combined force of Germans annihilated a Roman army consisting of [[Roman legions\|three legions]] including three squadrons of cavalry and six cohorts of auxiliary troops. As some soldiers must have been left behind to defend summer camps, ~~tbe~~ army probably held 10,000 to 15,000 men or roughly 8 to10 % of ~~tbe~~ total Roman army. The sources do not mention ~~tbe~~ size of ~~tbe~~ German army at ~~tbe~~ famous battle. Based on ~~tbe~~ size of ~~tbe~~ catchment area, and ~~tbe~~ fact that [[Arminius]], leader of ~~tbe~~ German forces, was not able to recruit all chieftains, it is likely that ~~tbe~~ Germans were heavily outnumbered, perhaps 1:2. [...] Every youngster, who has ever studied Latin, has been met with ~~tbe~~ task of reading one of ~~tbe~~ great military historical works, The Gallic Wars by [[Julius Caesar]]. As such they have also read how Caesar c. 55 BCE built two bridges across ~~tbe~~ river Rhine and led his army across in order to confront ~~tbe~~ Germans on their home turf for ~~tbe~~ first time. In ~~tbe~~ next 60 years, this led to widespread warfare in ~~tbe~~ northwestern part of present Germany in ~~tbe~~ region between ~~tbe~~ Rhine and Weser rivers, with skirmishes penetrating as far as ~~tbe~~ river Elbe. Exactly how far into ~~tbe~~ interior ([[Germania]] Interior) ~~tbe~~ Romans succeeded in pressing forward is debated. The remains, however, of several Roman encampments, recorded archaeologically as far inland as ~~tbe~~ Roman fort at Barkhausen in Porta Westfalica, indicate how far ~~tbe~~ Romans reached under ~~tbe~~ leadership of Tiberius 9-7 BCE. By all accounts, ~~tbe~~ Romans afterwards settled down to colonise and Romanise ~~tbe~~ region. For this purpose, Publius Quinctilius Varus was appointed governor of Germania in 7 CE. At his command were three legions. In September 9 CE Varus broke up from his summer camp in order to march his army to winter in either Xanten or Mainz. History later tells us that Varus received intelligence from Arminius that a rebellion was cooking to ~~tbe~~ east of ~~tbe~~ Rhine. Arminius was son of a prominent Germanic chieftain, but had spent his childhood in [[Rome]] as a hostage. Here, he had received a military education as well as obtained Roman citizenship. In this capacity, he had obtained ~~tbe~~ rank of equestrian, as well as a post as squadron leader in Varus' army. Afterwards it became apparent that, Arminius – while serving as liaison between ~~tbe~~ Romans and ~~tbe~~ Germans - had plotted against ~~tbe~~ Romans, recruiting support and soldiers from a number of German chieftains. We know from ~~tbe~~ archaeological excavations at Kalkriese that ~~tbe~~ attack had been carefully prepared during ~~tbe~~ summer. Thus, Arminius was not leading a random rebellion, but an ingeniously planned attack on ~~tbe~~ Roman army stationed along ~~tbe~~ Lower Rhine. Come September, Roman historians tell us that when Arminius had fed Varus ~~tbe~~ false information, Varus was lured to make a detour into Arminius' preselected and prepared battlefield. Historians also tell us that Segestes, ~~tbe~~ Roman father-in-law of Arminius, forewarned Varus; unfortunately, ~~tbe~~ Roman commander disregarded this and marched his legions towards total annihilation. Although ~~tbe~~ story of ~~tbe~~ battle of Teutoburg was known since Antiquity, it was not accorded special significance until 1470 CE when ~~tbe~~ description by [[Tacitus]] was discovered and printed in Venice for ~~tbe~~ first time. However, ~~tbe~~ exact location of ~~tbe~~ battlefield continued to be an enigma for more than 500 years, until ~~tbe~~ amateur archaeologist, major Tony Clunn, after a successful day with his metal detector, hooked up with ~~tbe~~ leading archaeologist in Osnabrück, Wolfgang Schlüter. Based on ~~tbe~~ writing of ~~tbe~~ 19th-century CE historian [[Theodor Mommsen]] they began systematically to investigate an area north of ~~tbe~~ Wiehen Hills (Wiehengebirge) in Lower [[Saxony]], Germany; more precisely at Kalkriese. Formerly, ~~tbe~~ area had been considered an archaeological desert because peasants had used a special technique when farming ~~tbe~~ land. In order to fertilise their fields, they would cut bricks of peat or grass to use as bedding for cattle in winter. Come spring, this manure would be spread out on ~~tbe~~ fields, which would be intensively worked as in-fields, creating layer upon layer of so-called podzoll or plaggen soil. This meant that ~~tbe~~ Roman landscape was covered with sometimes more than a meter to a meter and a half of agricultural soil. Until ~~tbe~~ introduction of deep ploughing, farmers might recover ~~tbe~~ odd coin, but no more. After [[WW2]] this changed and a better sense of ~~tbe~~ Iron Age landscape gradually emerged.''<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230726190135/https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1010/battle-of-teutoburg-forest/ Battle of Teutoburg Forest]</ref>		: ''At the Battle of Teutoburg Forest (aka Battle of Varus), c. 9 CE, a combined force of Germans annihilated a Roman army consisting of [[Roman legions\|three legions]] including three squadrons of cavalry and six cohorts of auxiliary troops. As some soldiers must have been left behind to defend summer camps, the army probably held 10,000 to 15,000 men or roughly 8 to10 % of the total Roman army. The sources do not mention the size of the German army at the famous battle. Based on the size of the catchment area, and the fact that [[Arminius]], leader of the German forces, was not able to recruit all chieftains, it is likely that the Germans were heavily outnumbered, perhaps 1:2. [...] Every youngster, who has ever studied Latin, has been met with the task of reading one of the great military historical works, The Gallic Wars by [[Julius Caesar]]. As such they have also read how Caesar c. 55 BCE built two bridges across the river Rhine and led his army across in order to confront the Germans on their home turf for the first time. In the next 60 years, this led to widespread warfare in the northwestern part of present Germany in the region between the Rhine and Weser rivers, with skirmishes penetrating as far as the river Elbe. Exactly how far into the interior ([[Germania]] Interior) the Romans succeeded in pressing forward is debated. The remains, however, of several Roman encampments, recorded archaeologically as far inland as the Roman fort at Barkhausen in Porta Westfalica, indicate how far the Romans reached under the leadership of Tiberius 9-7 BCE. By all accounts, the Romans afterwards settled down to colonise and Romanise the region. For this purpose, Publius Quinctilius Varus was appointed governor of Germania in 7 CE. At his command were three legions. In September 9 CE Varus broke up from his summer camp in order to march his army to winter in either Xanten or Mainz. History later tells us that Varus received intelligence from Arminius that a rebellion was cooking to the east of the Rhine. Arminius was son of a prominent Germanic chieftain, but had spent his childhood in [[Rome]] as a hostage. Here, he had received a military education as well as obtained Roman citizenship. In this capacity, he had obtained the rank of equestrian, as well as a post as squadron leader in Varus' army. Afterwards it became apparent that, Arminius – while serving as liaison between the Romans and the Germans - had plotted against the Romans, recruiting support and soldiers from a number of German chieftains. We know from the archaeological excavations at Kalkriese that the attack had been carefully prepared during the summer. Thus, Arminius was not leading a random rebellion, but an ingeniously planned attack on the Roman army stationed along the Lower Rhine. Come September, Roman historians tell us that when Arminius had fed Varus the false information, Varus was lured to make a detour into Arminius' preselected and prepared battlefield. Historians also tell us that Segestes, the Roman father-in-law of Arminius, forewarned Varus; unfortunately, the Roman commander disregarded this and marched his legions towards total annihilation. Although the story of the battle of Teutoburg was known since Antiquity, it was not accorded special significance until 1470 CE when the description by [[Tacitus]] was discovered and printed in Venice for the first time. However, the exact location of the battlefield continued to be an enigma for more than 500 years, until the amateur archaeologist, major Tony Clunn, after a successful day with his metal detector, hooked up with the leading archaeologist in Osnabrück, Wolfgang Schlüter. Based on the writing of the 19th-century CE historian [[Theodor Mommsen]] they began systematically to investigate an area north of the Wiehen Hills (Wiehengebirge) in Lower [[Saxony]], Germany; more precisely at Kalkriese. Formerly, the area had been considered an archaeological desert because peasants had used a special technique when farming the land. In order to fertilise their fields, they would cut bricks of peat or grass to use as bedding for cattle in winter. Come spring, this manure would be spread out on the fields, which would be intensively worked as in-fields, creating layer upon layer of so-called podzoll or plaggen soil. This meant that the Roman landscape was covered with sometimes more than a meter to a meter and a half of agricultural soil. Until the introduction of deep ploughing, farmers might recover the odd coin, but no more. After [[WW2]] this changed and a better sense of the Iron Age landscape gradually emerged.''<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230726190135/https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1010/battle-of-teutoburg-forest/ Battle of Teutoburg Forest]</ref>

	After Augustus, ~~tbe~~ Roman borders became, with some exceptions, relatively stable. Hermann and ~~tbe~~ Battle of ~~tbe~~ Teutoburg Forest became German fascist symbols. Following [[World War II]], Hermann became less known among West Germans and many schools shunned away from teaching ~~tbe~~ subject in any detail, due to its previous association with nationalism. The 2,000-year anniversary of ~~tbe~~ battle in Germany was celebrated with restraint, avoiding "flag-waving festivals" and other gestures that might be interpreted as "[[nationalism]]".		After Augustus, the Roman borders became, with some exceptions, relatively stable. Hermann and the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest became German fascist symbols. Following [[World War II]], Hermann became less known among West Germans and many schools shunned away from teaching the subject in any detail, due to its previous association with nationalism. The 2,000-year anniversary of the battle in Germany was celebrated with restraint, avoiding "flag-waving festivals" and other gestures that might be interpreted as "[[nationalism]]".

	== See also ==		== See also ==
Line 19:		Line 19:
	=== Encyclopedias ===		=== Encyclopedias ===
	*[https://www.ancient.eu/article/1010/battle-of-teutoburg-forest/ Ancient History Encyclopedia: Battle of Teutoburg Forest]		*[https://www.ancient.eu/article/1010/battle-of-teutoburg-forest/ Ancient History Encyclopedia: Battle of Teutoburg Forest]
	*[https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Teutoburg-Forest Encyclopedia Britannica: Battle of ~~tbe~~ Teutoburg Forest]		*[https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Teutoburg-Forest Encyclopedia Britannica: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]

	==References==		==References==

Bacchus: Text replacement - " the " to " tbe "

2024-04-26T17:03:46Z

Text replacement - " the " to " tbe "

← Older revision		Revision as of 08:03, 26 April 2024
Line 1:		Line 1:
	[[File:Otto Albert Koch Varusschlacht, 1909 (Lippisches Landesmuseum Detmold).png\|thumb\|300px\|Otto Albert Koch: "Varusschlacht", artwork 1909 (Lippisches Landesmuseum Detmold)]]		[[File:Otto Albert Koch Varusschlacht, 1909 (Lippisches Landesmuseum Detmold).png\|thumb\|300px\|Otto Albert Koch: "Varusschlacht", artwork 1909 (Lippisches Landesmuseum Detmold)]]
	The '''Battle of ~~the~~ Teutoburg Forest''' (8–11 September 9 AD) was a major defeat for [[Ancient Rome]], with three legions, six infantry cohorts and three auxiliary cavalry wings (20,000+ men) under Publius Quinctilius Varus being annihilated, bringing ~~the~~ triumphant period of expansion under Augustus to an abrupt end. The [[Germanic peoples\|Germanic]] forces were led by [[Hermann]] (Latin: ''Arminius''). The Roman Empire would launch no other major incursion into Germania until Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) during ~~the~~ Marcomannic Wars. Some of ~~the~~ descendants of ~~the~~ vassal kingdoms, like ~~the~~ Suebi (by suzerainty), that Augustus tried to create in [[Germania]] to expand ~~the~~ ''romanitas'' and ~~the~~ Empire would be ~~the~~ ones that [[Conquest of ~~the~~ Roman Empire\|conquered ~~the~~ Empire in ~~the~~ fourth and fifth centuries]]. The outcome of this battle and ~~the~~ crushing Roman defeat dissuaded ~~the~~ Romans from their ambition of conquering Germania, and is thus considered one of ~~the~~ most important events in [[European history]], creating ~~the~~ [[Latin]]-[[Germanic]] divide that persists in Western Europe to this day.		The '''Battle of tbe Teutoburg Forest''' (8–11 September 9 AD) was a major defeat for [[Ancient Rome]], with three legions, six infantry cohorts and three auxiliary cavalry wings (20,000+ men) under Publius Quinctilius Varus being annihilated, bringing tbe triumphant period of expansion under Augustus to an abrupt end. The [[Germanic peoples\|Germanic]] forces were led by [[Hermann]] (Latin: ''Arminius''). The Roman Empire would launch no other major incursion into Germania until Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) during tbe Marcomannic Wars. Some of tbe descendants of tbe vassal kingdoms, like tbe Suebi (by suzerainty), that Augustus tried to create in [[Germania]] to expand tbe ''romanitas'' and tbe Empire would be tbe ones that [[Conquest of tbe Roman Empire\|conquered tbe Empire in tbe fourth and fifth centuries]]. The outcome of this battle and tbe crushing Roman defeat dissuaded tbe Romans from their ambition of conquering Germania, and is thus considered one of tbe most important events in [[European history]], creating tbe [[Latin]]-[[Germanic]] divide that persists in Western Europe to this day.

	==History==		==History==
	[[File:Battle of Teutoburg Forest Map.png\|right\|310px]]		[[File:Battle of Teutoburg Forest Map.png\|right\|310px]]
	[[File:Battle of ~~the~~ Teutoburg Forest II.png\|right\|310px]]		[[File:Battle of tbe Teutoburg Forest II.png\|right\|310px]]
	The Roman Emperor [[Augustus]] likely had intended to conquer ~~the~~ German region between ~~the~~ Rhine and Elbe rivers, with this being prevented by ~~the~~ defeat. [[Tacitus]] described Hermann as “unquestionably ~~the~~ liberator of Germany”.		The Roman Emperor [[Augustus]] likely had intended to conquer tbe German region between tbe Rhine and Elbe rivers, with this being prevented by tbe defeat. [[Tacitus]] described Hermann as “unquestionably tbe liberator of Germany”.

	: ''At ~~the~~ Battle of Teutoburg Forest (aka Battle of Varus), c. 9 CE, a combined force of Germans annihilated a Roman army consisting of [[Roman legions\|three legions]] including three squadrons of cavalry and six cohorts of auxiliary troops. As some soldiers must have been left behind to defend summer camps, ~~the~~ army probably held 10,000 to 15,000 men or roughly 8 to10 % of ~~the~~ total Roman army. The sources do not mention ~~the~~ size of ~~the~~ German army at ~~the~~ famous battle. Based on ~~the~~ size of ~~the~~ catchment area, and ~~the~~ fact that [[Arminius]], leader of ~~the~~ German forces, was not able to recruit all chieftains, it is likely that ~~the~~ Germans were heavily outnumbered, perhaps 1:2. [...] Every youngster, who has ever studied Latin, has been met with ~~the~~ task of reading one of ~~the~~ great military historical works, The Gallic Wars by [[Julius Caesar]]. As such they have also read how Caesar c. 55 BCE built two bridges across ~~the~~ river Rhine and led his army across in order to confront ~~the~~ Germans on their home turf for ~~the~~ first time. In ~~the~~ next 60 years, this led to widespread warfare in ~~the~~ northwestern part of present Germany in ~~the~~ region between ~~the~~ Rhine and Weser rivers, with skirmishes penetrating as far as ~~the~~ river Elbe. Exactly how far into ~~the~~ interior ([[Germania]] Interior) ~~the~~ Romans succeeded in pressing forward is debated. The remains, however, of several Roman encampments, recorded archaeologically as far inland as ~~the~~ Roman fort at Barkhausen in Porta Westfalica, indicate how far ~~the~~ Romans reached under ~~the~~ leadership of Tiberius 9-7 BCE. By all accounts, ~~the~~ Romans afterwards settled down to colonise and Romanise ~~the~~ region. For this purpose, Publius Quinctilius Varus was appointed governor of Germania in 7 CE. At his command were three legions. In September 9 CE Varus broke up from his summer camp in order to march his army to winter in either Xanten or Mainz. History later tells us that Varus received intelligence from Arminius that a rebellion was cooking to ~~the~~ east of ~~the~~ Rhine. Arminius was son of a prominent Germanic chieftain, but had spent his childhood in [[Rome]] as a hostage. Here, he had received a military education as well as obtained Roman citizenship. In this capacity, he had obtained ~~the~~ rank of equestrian, as well as a post as squadron leader in Varus' army. Afterwards it became apparent that, Arminius – while serving as liaison between ~~the~~ Romans and ~~the~~ Germans - had plotted against ~~the~~ Romans, recruiting support and soldiers from a number of German chieftains. We know from ~~the~~ archaeological excavations at Kalkriese that ~~the~~ attack had been carefully prepared during ~~the~~ summer. Thus, Arminius was not leading a random rebellion, but an ingeniously planned attack on ~~the~~ Roman army stationed along ~~the~~ Lower Rhine. Come September, Roman historians tell us that when Arminius had fed Varus ~~the~~ false information, Varus was lured to make a detour into Arminius' preselected and prepared battlefield. Historians also tell us that Segestes, ~~the~~ Roman father-in-law of Arminius, forewarned Varus; unfortunately, ~~the~~ Roman commander disregarded this and marched his legions towards total annihilation. Although ~~the~~ story of ~~the~~ battle of Teutoburg was known since Antiquity, it was not accorded special significance until 1470 CE when ~~the~~ description by [[Tacitus]] was discovered and printed in Venice for ~~the~~ first time. However, ~~the~~ exact location of ~~the~~ battlefield continued to be an enigma for more than 500 years, until ~~the~~ amateur archaeologist, major Tony Clunn, after a successful day with his metal detector, hooked up with ~~the~~ leading archaeologist in Osnabrück, Wolfgang Schlüter. Based on ~~the~~ writing of ~~the~~ 19th-century CE historian [[Theodor Mommsen]] they began systematically to investigate an area north of ~~the~~ Wiehen Hills (Wiehengebirge) in Lower [[Saxony]], Germany; more precisely at Kalkriese. Formerly, ~~the~~ area had been considered an archaeological desert because peasants had used a special technique when farming ~~the~~ land. In order to fertilise their fields, they would cut bricks of peat or grass to use as bedding for cattle in winter. Come spring, this manure would be spread out on ~~the~~ fields, which would be intensively worked as in-fields, creating layer upon layer of so-called podzoll or plaggen soil. This meant that ~~the~~ Roman landscape was covered with sometimes more than a meter to a meter and a half of agricultural soil. Until ~~the~~ introduction of deep ploughing, farmers might recover ~~the~~ odd coin, but no more. After [[WW2]] this changed and a better sense of ~~the~~ Iron Age landscape gradually emerged.''<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230726190135/https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1010/battle-of-teutoburg-forest/ Battle of Teutoburg Forest]</ref>		: ''At tbe Battle of Teutoburg Forest (aka Battle of Varus), c. 9 CE, a combined force of Germans annihilated a Roman army consisting of [[Roman legions\|three legions]] including three squadrons of cavalry and six cohorts of auxiliary troops. As some soldiers must have been left behind to defend summer camps, tbe army probably held 10,000 to 15,000 men or roughly 8 to10 % of tbe total Roman army. The sources do not mention tbe size of tbe German army at tbe famous battle. Based on tbe size of tbe catchment area, and tbe fact that [[Arminius]], leader of tbe German forces, was not able to recruit all chieftains, it is likely that tbe Germans were heavily outnumbered, perhaps 1:2. [...] Every youngster, who has ever studied Latin, has been met with tbe task of reading one of tbe great military historical works, The Gallic Wars by [[Julius Caesar]]. As such they have also read how Caesar c. 55 BCE built two bridges across tbe river Rhine and led his army across in order to confront tbe Germans on their home turf for tbe first time. In tbe next 60 years, this led to widespread warfare in tbe northwestern part of present Germany in tbe region between tbe Rhine and Weser rivers, with skirmishes penetrating as far as tbe river Elbe. Exactly how far into tbe interior ([[Germania]] Interior) tbe Romans succeeded in pressing forward is debated. The remains, however, of several Roman encampments, recorded archaeologically as far inland as tbe Roman fort at Barkhausen in Porta Westfalica, indicate how far tbe Romans reached under tbe leadership of Tiberius 9-7 BCE. By all accounts, tbe Romans afterwards settled down to colonise and Romanise tbe region. For this purpose, Publius Quinctilius Varus was appointed governor of Germania in 7 CE. At his command were three legions. In September 9 CE Varus broke up from his summer camp in order to march his army to winter in either Xanten or Mainz. History later tells us that Varus received intelligence from Arminius that a rebellion was cooking to tbe east of tbe Rhine. Arminius was son of a prominent Germanic chieftain, but had spent his childhood in [[Rome]] as a hostage. Here, he had received a military education as well as obtained Roman citizenship. In this capacity, he had obtained tbe rank of equestrian, as well as a post as squadron leader in Varus' army. Afterwards it became apparent that, Arminius – while serving as liaison between tbe Romans and tbe Germans - had plotted against tbe Romans, recruiting support and soldiers from a number of German chieftains. We know from tbe archaeological excavations at Kalkriese that tbe attack had been carefully prepared during tbe summer. Thus, Arminius was not leading a random rebellion, but an ingeniously planned attack on tbe Roman army stationed along tbe Lower Rhine. Come September, Roman historians tell us that when Arminius had fed Varus tbe false information, Varus was lured to make a detour into Arminius' preselected and prepared battlefield. Historians also tell us that Segestes, tbe Roman father-in-law of Arminius, forewarned Varus; unfortunately, tbe Roman commander disregarded this and marched his legions towards total annihilation. Although tbe story of tbe battle of Teutoburg was known since Antiquity, it was not accorded special significance until 1470 CE when tbe description by [[Tacitus]] was discovered and printed in Venice for tbe first time. However, tbe exact location of tbe battlefield continued to be an enigma for more than 500 years, until tbe amateur archaeologist, major Tony Clunn, after a successful day with his metal detector, hooked up with tbe leading archaeologist in Osnabrück, Wolfgang Schlüter. Based on tbe writing of tbe 19th-century CE historian [[Theodor Mommsen]] they began systematically to investigate an area north of tbe Wiehen Hills (Wiehengebirge) in Lower [[Saxony]], Germany; more precisely at Kalkriese. Formerly, tbe area had been considered an archaeological desert because peasants had used a special technique when farming tbe land. In order to fertilise their fields, they would cut bricks of peat or grass to use as bedding for cattle in winter. Come spring, this manure would be spread out on tbe fields, which would be intensively worked as in-fields, creating layer upon layer of so-called podzoll or plaggen soil. This meant that tbe Roman landscape was covered with sometimes more than a meter to a meter and a half of agricultural soil. Until tbe introduction of deep ploughing, farmers might recover tbe odd coin, but no more. After [[WW2]] this changed and a better sense of tbe Iron Age landscape gradually emerged.''<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230726190135/https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1010/battle-of-teutoburg-forest/ Battle of Teutoburg Forest]</ref>

	After Augustus, ~~the~~ Roman borders became, with some exceptions, relatively stable. Hermann and ~~the~~ Battle of ~~the~~ Teutoburg Forest became German fascist symbols. Following [[World War II]], Hermann became less known among West Germans and many schools shunned away from teaching ~~the~~ subject in any detail, due to its previous association with nationalism. The 2,000-year anniversary of ~~the~~ battle in Germany was celebrated with restraint, avoiding "flag-waving festivals" and other gestures that might be interpreted as "[[nationalism]]".		After Augustus, tbe Roman borders became, with some exceptions, relatively stable. Hermann and tbe Battle of tbe Teutoburg Forest became German fascist symbols. Following [[World War II]], Hermann became less known among West Germans and many schools shunned away from teaching tbe subject in any detail, due to its previous association with nationalism. The 2,000-year anniversary of tbe battle in Germany was celebrated with restraint, avoiding "flag-waving festivals" and other gestures that might be interpreted as "[[nationalism]]".

	== See also ==		== See also ==
Line 19:		Line 19:
	=== Encyclopedias ===		=== Encyclopedias ===
	*[https://www.ancient.eu/article/1010/battle-of-teutoburg-forest/ Ancient History Encyclopedia: Battle of Teutoburg Forest]		*[https://www.ancient.eu/article/1010/battle-of-teutoburg-forest/ Ancient History Encyclopedia: Battle of Teutoburg Forest]
	*[https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Teutoburg-Forest Encyclopedia Britannica: Battle of ~~the~~ Teutoburg Forest]		*[https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Teutoburg-Forest Encyclopedia Britannica: Battle of tbe Teutoburg Forest]

	==References==		==References==

𝗔𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗮𝗻𝗴𝗲𝗹: Text replacement - "\[\[de:(.*)\]\]" to ""

2024-02-28T22:34:12Z

Text replacement - "\[\[de:(.*)\]\]" to ""

← Older revision		Revision as of 13:34, 28 February 2024
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	[[Category:European history]]		[[Category:European history]]
	[[Category:Ancient Rome]]		[[Category:Ancient Rome]]

	~~[[de:Hermannsschlacht]]~~

𝗔𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗮𝗻𝗴𝗲𝗹: Text replacement - ".jpg|" to ".png|"

2024-02-22T22:52:42Z

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	[[File:Otto Albert Koch Varusschlacht, 1909 (Lippisches Landesmuseum Detmold).~~jpg~~\|thumb\|300px\|Otto Albert Koch: "Varusschlacht", artwork 1909 (Lippisches Landesmuseum Detmold)]]		[[File:Otto Albert Koch Varusschlacht, 1909 (Lippisches Landesmuseum Detmold).png\|thumb\|300px\|Otto Albert Koch: "Varusschlacht", artwork 1909 (Lippisches Landesmuseum Detmold)]]
	The '''Battle of the Teutoburg Forest''' (8–11 September 9 AD) was a major defeat for [[Ancient Rome]], with three legions, six infantry cohorts and three auxiliary cavalry wings (20,000+ men) under Publius Quinctilius Varus being annihilated, bringing the triumphant period of expansion under Augustus to an abrupt end. The [[Germanic peoples\|Germanic]] forces were led by [[Hermann]] (Latin: ''Arminius''). The Roman Empire would launch no other major incursion into Germania until Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) during the Marcomannic Wars. Some of the descendants of the vassal kingdoms, like the Suebi (by suzerainty), that Augustus tried to create in [[Germania]] to expand the ''romanitas'' and the Empire would be the ones that [[Conquest of the Roman Empire\|conquered the Empire in the fourth and fifth centuries]]. The outcome of this battle and the crushing Roman defeat dissuaded the Romans from their ambition of conquering Germania, and is thus considered one of the most important events in [[European history]], creating the [[Latin]]-[[Germanic]] divide that persists in Western Europe to this day.		The '''Battle of the Teutoburg Forest''' (8–11 September 9 AD) was a major defeat for [[Ancient Rome]], with three legions, six infantry cohorts and three auxiliary cavalry wings (20,000+ men) under Publius Quinctilius Varus being annihilated, bringing the triumphant period of expansion under Augustus to an abrupt end. The [[Germanic peoples\|Germanic]] forces were led by [[Hermann]] (Latin: ''Arminius''). The Roman Empire would launch no other major incursion into Germania until Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) during the Marcomannic Wars. Some of the descendants of the vassal kingdoms, like the Suebi (by suzerainty), that Augustus tried to create in [[Germania]] to expand the ''romanitas'' and the Empire would be the ones that [[Conquest of the Roman Empire\|conquered the Empire in the fourth and fifth centuries]]. The outcome of this battle and the crushing Roman defeat dissuaded the Romans from their ambition of conquering Germania, and is thus considered one of the most important events in [[European history]], creating the [[Latin]]-[[Germanic]] divide that persists in Western Europe to this day.

	==History==		==History==
	[[File:Battle of Teutoburg Forest Map.~~jpg~~\|right\|310px]]		[[File:Battle of Teutoburg Forest Map.png\|right\|310px]]
	[[File:Battle of the Teutoburg Forest II.~~jpg~~\|right\|310px]]		[[File:Battle of the Teutoburg Forest II.png\|right\|310px]]
	The Roman Emperor [[Augustus]] likely had intended to conquer the German region between the Rhine and Elbe rivers, with this being prevented by the defeat. [[Tacitus]] described Hermann as “unquestionably the liberator of Germany”.		The Roman Emperor [[Augustus]] likely had intended to conquer the German region between the Rhine and Elbe rivers, with this being prevented by the defeat. [[Tacitus]] described Hermann as “unquestionably the liberator of Germany”.

𝗔𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗮𝗻𝗴𝗲𝗹: Text replacement - "nationalist" to "fascist"

2024-02-15T18:18:18Z

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	: ''At the Battle of Teutoburg Forest (aka Battle of Varus), c. 9 CE, a combined force of Germans annihilated a Roman army consisting of [[Roman legions\|three legions]] including three squadrons of cavalry and six cohorts of auxiliary troops. As some soldiers must have been left behind to defend summer camps, the army probably held 10,000 to 15,000 men or roughly 8 to10 % of the total Roman army. The sources do not mention the size of the German army at the famous battle. Based on the size of the catchment area, and the fact that [[Arminius]], leader of the German forces, was not able to recruit all chieftains, it is likely that the Germans were heavily outnumbered, perhaps 1:2. [...] Every youngster, who has ever studied Latin, has been met with the task of reading one of the great military historical works, The Gallic Wars by [[Julius Caesar]]. As such they have also read how Caesar c. 55 BCE built two bridges across the river Rhine and led his army across in order to confront the Germans on their home turf for the first time. In the next 60 years, this led to widespread warfare in the northwestern part of present Germany in the region between the Rhine and Weser rivers, with skirmishes penetrating as far as the river Elbe. Exactly how far into the interior ([[Germania]] Interior) the Romans succeeded in pressing forward is debated. The remains, however, of several Roman encampments, recorded archaeologically as far inland as the Roman fort at Barkhausen in Porta Westfalica, indicate how far the Romans reached under the leadership of Tiberius 9-7 BCE. By all accounts, the Romans afterwards settled down to colonise and Romanise the region. For this purpose, Publius Quinctilius Varus was appointed governor of Germania in 7 CE. At his command were three legions. In September 9 CE Varus broke up from his summer camp in order to march his army to winter in either Xanten or Mainz. History later tells us that Varus received intelligence from Arminius that a rebellion was cooking to the east of the Rhine. Arminius was son of a prominent Germanic chieftain, but had spent his childhood in [[Rome]] as a hostage. Here, he had received a military education as well as obtained Roman citizenship. In this capacity, he had obtained the rank of equestrian, as well as a post as squadron leader in Varus' army. Afterwards it became apparent that, Arminius – while serving as liaison between the Romans and the Germans - had plotted against the Romans, recruiting support and soldiers from a number of German chieftains. We know from the archaeological excavations at Kalkriese that the attack had been carefully prepared during the summer. Thus, Arminius was not leading a random rebellion, but an ingeniously planned attack on the Roman army stationed along the Lower Rhine. Come September, Roman historians tell us that when Arminius had fed Varus the false information, Varus was lured to make a detour into Arminius' preselected and prepared battlefield. Historians also tell us that Segestes, the Roman father-in-law of Arminius, forewarned Varus; unfortunately, the Roman commander disregarded this and marched his legions towards total annihilation. Although the story of the battle of Teutoburg was known since Antiquity, it was not accorded special significance until 1470 CE when the description by [[Tacitus]] was discovered and printed in Venice for the first time. However, the exact location of the battlefield continued to be an enigma for more than 500 years, until the amateur archaeologist, major Tony Clunn, after a successful day with his metal detector, hooked up with the leading archaeologist in Osnabrück, Wolfgang Schlüter. Based on the writing of the 19th-century CE historian [[Theodor Mommsen]] they began systematically to investigate an area north of the Wiehen Hills (Wiehengebirge) in Lower [[Saxony]], Germany; more precisely at Kalkriese. Formerly, the area had been considered an archaeological desert because peasants had used a special technique when farming the land. In order to fertilise their fields, they would cut bricks of peat or grass to use as bedding for cattle in winter. Come spring, this manure would be spread out on the fields, which would be intensively worked as in-fields, creating layer upon layer of so-called podzoll or plaggen soil. This meant that the Roman landscape was covered with sometimes more than a meter to a meter and a half of agricultural soil. Until the introduction of deep ploughing, farmers might recover the odd coin, but no more. After [[WW2]] this changed and a better sense of the Iron Age landscape gradually emerged.''<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230726190135/https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1010/battle-of-teutoburg-forest/ Battle of Teutoburg Forest]</ref>		: ''At the Battle of Teutoburg Forest (aka Battle of Varus), c. 9 CE, a combined force of Germans annihilated a Roman army consisting of [[Roman legions\|three legions]] including three squadrons of cavalry and six cohorts of auxiliary troops. As some soldiers must have been left behind to defend summer camps, the army probably held 10,000 to 15,000 men or roughly 8 to10 % of the total Roman army. The sources do not mention the size of the German army at the famous battle. Based on the size of the catchment area, and the fact that [[Arminius]], leader of the German forces, was not able to recruit all chieftains, it is likely that the Germans were heavily outnumbered, perhaps 1:2. [...] Every youngster, who has ever studied Latin, has been met with the task of reading one of the great military historical works, The Gallic Wars by [[Julius Caesar]]. As such they have also read how Caesar c. 55 BCE built two bridges across the river Rhine and led his army across in order to confront the Germans on their home turf for the first time. In the next 60 years, this led to widespread warfare in the northwestern part of present Germany in the region between the Rhine and Weser rivers, with skirmishes penetrating as far as the river Elbe. Exactly how far into the interior ([[Germania]] Interior) the Romans succeeded in pressing forward is debated. The remains, however, of several Roman encampments, recorded archaeologically as far inland as the Roman fort at Barkhausen in Porta Westfalica, indicate how far the Romans reached under the leadership of Tiberius 9-7 BCE. By all accounts, the Romans afterwards settled down to colonise and Romanise the region. For this purpose, Publius Quinctilius Varus was appointed governor of Germania in 7 CE. At his command were three legions. In September 9 CE Varus broke up from his summer camp in order to march his army to winter in either Xanten or Mainz. History later tells us that Varus received intelligence from Arminius that a rebellion was cooking to the east of the Rhine. Arminius was son of a prominent Germanic chieftain, but had spent his childhood in [[Rome]] as a hostage. Here, he had received a military education as well as obtained Roman citizenship. In this capacity, he had obtained the rank of equestrian, as well as a post as squadron leader in Varus' army. Afterwards it became apparent that, Arminius – while serving as liaison between the Romans and the Germans - had plotted against the Romans, recruiting support and soldiers from a number of German chieftains. We know from the archaeological excavations at Kalkriese that the attack had been carefully prepared during the summer. Thus, Arminius was not leading a random rebellion, but an ingeniously planned attack on the Roman army stationed along the Lower Rhine. Come September, Roman historians tell us that when Arminius had fed Varus the false information, Varus was lured to make a detour into Arminius' preselected and prepared battlefield. Historians also tell us that Segestes, the Roman father-in-law of Arminius, forewarned Varus; unfortunately, the Roman commander disregarded this and marched his legions towards total annihilation. Although the story of the battle of Teutoburg was known since Antiquity, it was not accorded special significance until 1470 CE when the description by [[Tacitus]] was discovered and printed in Venice for the first time. However, the exact location of the battlefield continued to be an enigma for more than 500 years, until the amateur archaeologist, major Tony Clunn, after a successful day with his metal detector, hooked up with the leading archaeologist in Osnabrück, Wolfgang Schlüter. Based on the writing of the 19th-century CE historian [[Theodor Mommsen]] they began systematically to investigate an area north of the Wiehen Hills (Wiehengebirge) in Lower [[Saxony]], Germany; more precisely at Kalkriese. Formerly, the area had been considered an archaeological desert because peasants had used a special technique when farming the land. In order to fertilise their fields, they would cut bricks of peat or grass to use as bedding for cattle in winter. Come spring, this manure would be spread out on the fields, which would be intensively worked as in-fields, creating layer upon layer of so-called podzoll or plaggen soil. This meant that the Roman landscape was covered with sometimes more than a meter to a meter and a half of agricultural soil. Until the introduction of deep ploughing, farmers might recover the odd coin, but no more. After [[WW2]] this changed and a better sense of the Iron Age landscape gradually emerged.''<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230726190135/https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1010/battle-of-teutoburg-forest/ Battle of Teutoburg Forest]</ref>

	After Augustus, the Roman borders became, with some exceptions, relatively stable. Hermann and the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest became German ~~nationalist~~ symbols. Following [[World War II]], Hermann became less known among West Germans and many schools shunned away from teaching the subject in any detail, due to its previous association with nationalism. The 2,000-year anniversary of the battle in Germany was celebrated with restraint, avoiding "flag-waving festivals" and other gestures that might be interpreted as "[[nationalism]]".		After Augustus, the Roman borders became, with some exceptions, relatively stable. Hermann and the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest became German fascist symbols. Following [[World War II]], Hermann became less known among West Germans and many schools shunned away from teaching the subject in any detail, due to its previous association with nationalism. The 2,000-year anniversary of the battle in Germany was celebrated with restraint, avoiding "flag-waving festivals" and other gestures that might be interpreted as "[[nationalism]]".

	== See also ==		== See also ==

𝗔𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗮𝗻𝗴𝗲𝗹: Text replacement - "\[\[Cat(.)Military(.)\]\]" to ""

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	[[Category:European history]]		[[Category:European history]]
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	~~[[Category:Military history]]~~
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𝗔𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗮𝗻𝗴𝗲𝗹: Text replacement - "\[\[Category(.)German(.)\]\]" to ""

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	==References==		==References==
	{{reflist\|2}}		{{reflist\|2}}
	~~[[Category:Germania]]~~
	[[Category:history]]		[[Category:history]]
	[[Category:European history]]		[[Category:European history]]

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	[[Category:European history]]		[[Category:European history]]
	[[Category:Ancient Rome]]		[[Category:Ancient Rome]]
	[[Category:Military history]]		[[Category:Military history]]
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	==References==		==References==
	{{reflist}}		{{reflist\|2}}
	[[Category:Germania]]		[[Category:Germania]]
	[[Category:German history]]		[[Category:German history]]

𝗔𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗮𝗻𝗴𝗲𝗹: 1 revision imported

2024-02-06T21:55:25Z

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