Central Powers - Revision history

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	[[Category:The Great War]]		[[Category:The Great War]]
	~~[[Category:Empires]]~~
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	==References==		==References==
	{{reflist\|2}}		{{reflist\|2}}
	~~[[de:Mittelmächte]]~~
	[[Category:The Great War]]		[[Category:The Great War]]
	[[Category:Empires]]		[[Category:Empires]]

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	[[File:„In Treue fest“, Kaiser Wilhelm II. und Kaiser Franz Josef I., Ölgemälde von von E. Bieler, Berlin, um 1910.~~jpg~~\|220px\|thumb\|right\|[[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] of Germany and Kaiser Franz-Joseph of Austria-Hungary in 1914.]]		[[File:„In Treue fest“, Kaiser Wilhelm II. und Kaiser Franz Josef I., Ölgemälde von von E. Bieler, Berlin, um 1910.png\|220px\|thumb\|right\|[[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] of Germany and Kaiser Franz-Joseph of Austria-Hungary in 1914.]]
	The '''Central Powers''' were originally the [[Germany\|German Empire]] and the [[Austria-Hungary\|Austro-Hungarian Empire]], subsequently joined by the [[Ottoman Empire]], and [[Bulgaria]], who were all allies in [[The Great War]]. The first two empires were located between the [[Russian Empire]] and [[Romania]] in the east, [[France]] in the west, and [[Serbia]], [[Montenegro]] and [[Italy]] in the south.		The '''Central Powers''' were originally the [[Germany\|German Empire]] and the [[Austria-Hungary\|Austro-Hungarian Empire]], subsequently joined by the [[Ottoman Empire]], and [[Bulgaria]], who were all allies in [[The Great War]]. The first two empires were located between the [[Russian Empire]] and [[Romania]] in the east, [[France]] in the west, and [[Serbia]], [[Montenegro]] and [[Italy]] in the south.
	[[File:Kaisers_meet_c1916.~~jpg~~\|220px\|thumb\|Kaisers Wilhelm II of Germany and Karl of Austria-Hungary, wearing each others uniforms, late 1916.]]		[[File:Kaisers_meet_c1916.png\|220px\|thumb\|Kaisers Wilhelm II of Germany and Karl of Austria-Hungary, wearing each others uniforms, late 1916.]]
	==History==		==History==
	[[File:Ferdinand_of_Bulgaria.~~jpg~~\|220px\|thumb\|Tsar Ferdinand of Bulgaria]]		[[File:Ferdinand_of_Bulgaria.png\|220px\|thumb\|Tsar Ferdinand of Bulgaria]]
	[[File:Ottoman_Sultan_Mehmed_V.~~jpg~~\|220px\|thumb\|Mehmed V, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire]]		[[File:Ottoman_Sultan_Mehmed_V.png\|220px\|thumb\|Mehmed V, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire]]

	===Road to War===		===Road to War===

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	[[Category:~~World~~ War I]]		[[Category:The Great War]]
	[[Category:Empires]]		[[Category:Empires]]
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	* [[Axis powers]]		* [[Axis powers]]
	==References==		==References==
	{{reflist}}		{{reflist\|2}}
	[[de:Mittelmächte]]		[[de:Mittelmächte]]
	[[Category:World War I]]		[[Category:World War I]]

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[[File:„In Treue fest“, Kaiser Wilhelm II. und Kaiser Franz Josef I., Ölgemälde von von E. Bieler, Berlin, um 1910.jpg|220px|thumb|right|[[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] of Germany and Kaiser Franz-Joseph of Austria-Hungary in 1914.]]
The '''Central Powers''' were originally the [[Germany|German Empire]] and the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian Empire]], subsequently joined by the [[Ottoman Empire]], and [[Bulgaria]], who were all allies in [[The Great War]]. The first two empires were located between the [[Russian Empire]] and [[Romania]] in the east, [[France]] in the west, and [[Serbia]], [[Montenegro]] and [[Italy]] in the south.
[[File:Kaisers_meet_c1916.jpg|220px|thumb|Kaisers Wilhelm II of Germany and Karl of Austria-Hungary, wearing each others uniforms, late 1916.]]
==History==
[[File:Ferdinand_of_Bulgaria.jpg|220px|thumb|Tsar Ferdinand of Bulgaria]]
[[File:Ottoman_Sultan_Mehmed_V.jpg|220px|thumb|Mehmed V, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire]]

===Road to War===
: See: ''[[Causes of World War I]]''
The German and Austro-Hungarian Empires concluded a defensive alliance treaty on October 7, 1879, being joined by [[Italy]] on May 20, 1882, forming the [[Triple Alliance]]. It was formally redrafted on December 5, 1912.<ref>Montgelas, Count Max, & Schucking, Professor Walther, ''Outbreak of the World War'' (Kautsky Papers), Oxford University Press, London & New York, 1924, p.607-611.</ref> Romania joined the Alliance on February 5 & 26, ratified at Bucharest on March 8, 1913.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.612-614.</ref>

With the murders on 28 June, 1914 of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian thrones, the Archduke Franz-Ferdinand, and his wife, in [[Sarajevo]] by Serbian [[terrorists]], armed and expedited by agents of the Serbian Government in [[Belgrade]]<ref>Cassels, L., ''The Archduke and the Assassin'', London, 1984, ISBN 0-584-11011-1</ref> the Vienna government served an ultimatum upon the Serbs,<ref>''The Austrian Red Book'', Vienna, April 1915, English translation in "International Conciliation", 1915, book no.89, published by the American Association for International Conciliation, New York.</ref> which the latter declined to fully accept<ref>''The Serbian Blue Book'', Belgrade, May 1915, English translation in "International Conciliation", book no.90, 1915.</ref>, which led to the outbreak of war between those two States on July 28, 1914. On the same day Montenegro said they would "co-operate" with Serbia.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.279, telegram no.306.</ref>

The Austro-Hungarian and German requests for Italian support were rejected by the Italian Government arguing that [[Austria]]'s declaration of war on [[Serbia]] was an aggressive act and a breach of Article 7 of the Treaty which intimated they should have consulted all Alliance partners first<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.192-3, telegram 134, July 25, 1914, German Secretary of State von Jagow to Emperor Wilhelm II with Ambassador in Rome's report; German Ambassador at Rome to Foreign Office, Berlin, July 30, 1914, telegram no.419.</ref>, ignoring the obvious aggression of Serbia with its organised murders of the Austrian heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary. However, [[Italy]] had its eyes on the Trentino, and Adriatic & Aegean seas, and were seeking what they called "compensation" for supporting the Alliance. On July 31, The German Ambassador at Rome reported to Berlin that Italy's Marquis San Giuliano told him that Italy was declaring herself neutral.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.427, telegram 534.</ref> In the end Italy betrayed her former allies by entering [[The Great War]] on May 23, 1915, on the side of the [[Entente Powers|Western Allies]], Russia, and Romania (who also changed sides using similar arguments to the Italians.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.454, telegram 582, August 1, 1914.</ref>.)

Imperial Russia, having suffered a humiliating defeat on land and sea in the 1905 Russo-Japanese War<ref>Connaughton, Richard, ''The War of the Rising Sun and Tumbling Bear'', London, 1988, ISBN 0-415-00906-5</ref>, and seeing herself as the leader of the Pan-Slav Movement<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.285-6: Russian Ambassador proposed to the Bulgarian Premier on July 27, 1914 that all the Balkan nations should conclude a new Balkan alliance to support Serbia. This was curtly refused, the Premier replying that "Bulgaria would not lift a finger for the benefit of Serbia."</ref><ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.298, telegram no.337, German Military Attache in St.Petersburg reports on conversation he had with Prince Troubetzkoi, who is in the Tsar's ''entourage'', speaking of the Serbs: "they are our Slav brothers, and we cannot leave our brethren in the lurch."</ref><ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.419, German General Staff Report to Foreign Office, July 31, 1914, that 60,000 Russians are to be sent through Romania by way of Negotin to [[Serbia]].</ref>., had encouraged the Serbs by giving them a 'blank cheque' of guaranteed support, began mobilising its forces from mid-July against [[Austria-Hungary]], not making a formal announcement of it until July 31st<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.274.</ref>, and also Germany. Russia had been conspiring with France since at least 1891<ref>''The Franco-Russian Alliance'' in "International Conciliation", book no.136, March 1919, pps:107-121.</ref> for a decisive war against the two central powers<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.170, telegram 134, German Ambassador Count Pourtales to Foreign Office in Berlin, July 23, 1914, reporting on visit to Russia of President Poinclaré of France; states "my Austro-Hungarian colleague believes that M.Poincaré is urging them [the Russians] on here to a conflict with the Triple Alliance."</ref> each with their own objectives. The Russians proceeded to move vast armies to the borders of both Germany and Austria-Hungary<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.361, telegram no.422, July 30, 1914, from German Consul-General at Warsaw to Imperial Chancellor: "Russia is already in a state of complete preparation for war; Vistula railroad is mobilised and freight traffic is to be entirely stopped. Most of the officers' ladies left yesterday."</ref> and the latter, which had only partially mobilised - against Serbia<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.307.</ref>, was obliged to fully mobilise on July 31 to protect its eastern and northern borders.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.419, full mobilisation of all Austro-Hungarian forces was proclaimed July 31.</ref>. France then mobilised against Germany on August 1st.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.458.</ref><ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.302, telegrams no.341 & 2, July 29, 1914: German Chancellor, Bethman-Hollweg states that despite this "we continue to hope for the preservation of peace."</ref>

Germany was the last of the European powers to mobilise, on August 2.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.441.</ref>.<ref>''The German White Book'', Berlin, June 1919.</ref><ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.306-8, Report of July 29, 1914 of the German General Staff to the Imperial Chancellor, summing up that "the military situation is becoming from day to day more unfavourable for us."</ref> In military terms, mobilisation is war and a declaration becomes a mere formality.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.403, telegram no.488, July 31, 1914, Bethmann-Hollweg to German Ambassador at Paris: "In spite of the still pending and apparently not hopeless mediation, and although we ourselves have taken no mobilisation measures of any kind, Russia has today ordered the [full] mobilisation of her entire army and navy against us also. We have had to declare [therefore] a 'state of threatening danger of war', which must be followed by [our own] mobilisation if Russia does not suspend all war measures against Austria and ourselves within twelve hours."</ref> Rather surprisingly, Belgium had mobilised the day ''before'' Germany!<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.446, telegram 565 August 1, 1914.</ref>

Two huge Russian armies invaded Germany ([[East Prussia]]) on August 2nd, and Germany accordingly declared war on them and their ally, France.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.476-7.</ref>. (Austria-Hungary's formal declaration of war with Russia was not made until August 5th.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.600.</ref>).

Following the outbreak of European war in August 1914, the [[Ottoman Empire]] signed a Treaty of Alliance with the Central Powers on August 3 & 4, 1914.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.526, telegram no.726.</ref>.

Bulgaria, still resentful after its defeat in July 1913 at the hands of Serbia, [[Greece]], [[Romania]] and the Ottoman Empire, was the last nation to enter the war, invading Serbia in support of Austro-Hungarian forces in October 1915.

===The End===
'''[[Montenegro]]''' was first out of the war, requesting an [[armistice]] on January 12, 1916 following an Austro-Hungarian joint army and naval offensive.<ref>Noppen, Ryan & Wright, Paul, ''Austro-Hungarian Battleships 1914-18'', Osprey Publishing, Oxford, UK, 2012, pps:28-30. ISBN 978-1-849-8-688-2</ref> The previous year the '''[[Serbia]]n''' army had been forced into retreat and "virtually annihilated" by Austro-Hungarian forces, survivors fleeing to [[Corfu]].<ref>Young, Peter, editor, ''History of the First World War'', BPC Publishing, London, 1971, vol.7, no.11, "Defeat of Bulgaria" by Alan Palmer, p.2986</ref>

The Central Powers decisively defeated '''[[Russian Empire|Russia]]''', who sued for peace and signed the Treaty of [[Brest-Litovsk]] in March 1918 and left [[The Great War]].<ref>Wheeler-Bennett, Sir John W., ''Brest-Litovsk, The Forgotten Peace, March 1918'', London and New York, 1966 (1st edition 1938)</ref> On March 5, a defeated '''[[Romania]]''' signed a preliminary Peace Treaty also with the Central Powers, concluding with the Treaty of Bucharest on May 7th.<ref>Young, Peter, ''History of the First World War'', BPC Publishing, London, 1971, vol.7, no.13, "The Romanian Imbroglio" by J. Michael Kitch , pps: 3029-37</ref>

'''[[Bulgaria]]''', however, was the first Central Power to agree an armistice with the Allies, on September 29, 1918, following a successful French-led Allied advance, using remnants of the Serb army, Greeks, four battalions of French [[Black]] troops from [[Senegal]] and six squadrons of [[Morocco|Moroccans]], smashed through the [[Macedonia]]n Front.<ref>''History of the First World War'', BPC 1971, vol.7, no.11, "Defeat of Bulgaria" by Alan Palmer, pps: 2980-87</ref><ref>Rady, Prof., Martyn, ''The Habsburgs: The Rise and Fall of a World Power'', Allen Lane, London, 2020, p.322, ISBN: 978-0-241-33262-7</ref>

The '''[[Ottoman Empire]]''' then also called for an armistice, which they signed on October 30, 1918, following the latest British and [[Arab]] offensives in [[Palestine]] and [[Syria]].<ref>''History of the First World War'', BPC 1971, vol.7, no.13, "The Collapse of Turkey" by David Walder, pps: 3050-6</ref>

'''[[Austria-Hungary]]''' concluded separate ceasefires with the Western Allies during the first week of November following the commencement of the disintegration of the [[Habsburg Empire]] late in the previous month, and Germany signed the Armistice ending the war on the morning of 11 November, 1918, after a succession of advances in northern France since August by the [[British]] and their Imperial Forces, the [[French]] and, latterly, the arrival of two million [[American]] troops<ref>Rady, 2020, p.322.</ref>.

It is generally accepted by most historians<ref>Two examples being: ''The End of Order: Versailles 1919'' by Charles L. Mee, London, 1980, ISBN 436-27650-X and ''Hall of Mirrors'' by David Sinclair, London, 2001, ISBN 0-7126-8389-5</ref> that the treatment of the Central Powers at the 1919 [[Treaty of Versailles|Paris Peace Conference]] and the dictated Peace Treaties<ref>Montgelas, Count Max, ''The Case for the Central Powers - An Impeachment of the Versailles Verdict'', London, 1925.</ref><ref>Germany, Crown Prince Wilhelm of, ''I Seek The Truth'' - on the responsibility for the War, London, 1926.</ref> destroying their empires was wrong and were a direct cause of [[World War II]].

==See also==
* [[Axis powers]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
[[de:Mittelmächte]]
[[Category:World War I]]
[[Category:Empires]]
[[Category:Europe]]
[[Category:History]]
[[Category:European history]]
[[Category:German history]]
[[Category:Austria-Hungary]]