Friedrich Max Müller - Revision history

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	==Life==		==Life==
	[[File:Johann Ludwig Wilhelm Müller.~~jpg~~\|thumb\|310px\|Johann Ludwig Wilhelm Müller (1794–1827); Max Müller’s father came from modest circumstances, but had fought bravely in the [[Napoleonic Wars]], studied history and philology in Berlin, and afterwards began publishing highly popular poetry capturing the German national and Romantic spirit of the time. His poetry collections ''Die schöne Müllerin'' (1823) and ''Die Winterreise'' (1827) were set to music by [[Franz Schubert]] to great acclaim. His ''Griechenlieder'' (1821–24), meanwhile, caught the popular nationalism of the early restoration years and sympathy with the Greek cause in part also fuelled by widespread interest in classics, without setting him outside what was acceptable politically at court. In 1819, Wilhelm Müller became a teacher at the Gymnasium in Dessau. The year after, he took on the role of court librarian. Max Müller’s mother Adelheid (1800–1883), meanwhile, was from the Basedow family, which had occupied high ministerial positions. Both her father Ludwig Basedow (1774–1835), since 1833 von ''Basedow'', and brother Dr. jur. Friedrich (1797–1864) were Prime Ministers of the Duchy. Her brother Dr. med. Carl Adolph von Basedow (1799–1854) was a physician most famous for reporting the symptoms of what could later be dubbed Graves-Basedow disease. Her grandfather, the famous educational reformer Johann Bernhard Basedow (1724–1790) had been a friend of [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]. All in all, Friedrich Max Müller was born into propitious circumstances. His family and courtly contacts would contribute to his cultural interests, personal and professional connections and reputation.]]		[[File:Johann Ludwig Wilhelm Müller.png\|thumb\|310px\|Johann Ludwig Wilhelm Müller (1794–1827); Max Müller’s father came from modest circumstances, but had fought bravely in the [[Napoleonic Wars]], studied history and philology in Berlin, and afterwards began publishing highly popular poetry capturing the German national and Romantic spirit of the time. His poetry collections ''Die schöne Müllerin'' (1823) and ''Die Winterreise'' (1827) were set to music by [[Franz Schubert]] to great acclaim. His ''Griechenlieder'' (1821–24), meanwhile, caught the popular nationalism of the early restoration years and sympathy with the Greek cause in part also fuelled by widespread interest in classics, without setting him outside what was acceptable politically at court. In 1819, Wilhelm Müller became a teacher at the Gymnasium in Dessau. The year after, he took on the role of court librarian. Max Müller’s mother Adelheid (1800–1883), meanwhile, was from the Basedow family, which had occupied high ministerial positions. Both her father Ludwig Basedow (1774–1835), since 1833 von ''Basedow'', and brother Dr. jur. Friedrich (1797–1864) were Prime Ministers of the Duchy. Her brother Dr. med. Carl Adolph von Basedow (1799–1854) was a physician most famous for reporting the symptoms of what could later be dubbed Graves-Basedow disease. Her grandfather, the famous educational reformer Johann Bernhard Basedow (1724–1790) had been a friend of [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]. All in all, Friedrich Max Müller was born into propitious circumstances. His family and courtly contacts would contribute to his cultural interests, personal and professional connections and reputation.]]
	[[File:Friedrich Max Müller, by Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson), circa 1856.~~jpg~~\|thumb\|310px\|Friedrich Max Müller, by Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson), circa 1856; Müller’s six-volume edition of the ''Vedas'' was only completed in 1874, by which time he had already been established in Oxford for over twenty years, having been elected as Professor in the Taylorian Institute for Modern European Languages in 1854. He established a reputation as a specialist in German literature in England. This reputation was reinforced when Müller published an influential edition of German Classics in 1858, and when he was appointed as the inaugural President of the English Goethe Society in 1886.]]		[[File:Friedrich Max Müller, by Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson), circa 1856.png\|thumb\|310px\|Friedrich Max Müller, by Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson), circa 1856; Müller’s six-volume edition of the ''Vedas'' was only completed in 1874, by which time he had already been established in Oxford for over twenty years, having been elected as Professor in the Taylorian Institute for Modern European Languages in 1854. He established a reputation as a specialist in German literature in England. This reputation was reinforced when Müller published an influential edition of German Classics in 1858, and when he was appointed as the inaugural President of the English Goethe Society in 1886.]]
	[[File:Friedrich Max Müller before 1878.~~jpg~~\|thumb\|310px\|Friedrich Max Müller before 1878; He was one of the founders of the western academic disciplines of Indian studies and religious studies ('science of religion', German: ''Religionswissenschaft''). The German Romantic interest in India was not clearly separated from literary culture and the broader context of [[Romanticism]]. Müller was literally born into this Romantic tradition, and his interest in Asian cultures may well have been aroused by his exposure to [[Friedrich Schlegel]]’s ''Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier'' (On the Language and Wisdom of the Indians, 1808) and to [[Goethe]]’s ''West-östlicher Divan'' (West-Eastern Divan, 1819).]]		[[File:Friedrich Max Müller before 1878.png\|thumb\|310px\|Friedrich Max Müller before 1878; He was one of the founders of the western academic disciplines of Indian studies and religious studies ('science of religion', German: ''Religionswissenschaft''). The German Romantic interest in India was not clearly separated from literary culture and the broader context of [[Romanticism]]. Müller was literally born into this Romantic tradition, and his interest in Asian cultures may well have been aroused by his exposure to [[Friedrich Schlegel]]’s ''Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier'' (On the Language and Wisdom of the Indians, 1808) and to [[Goethe]]’s ''West-östlicher Divan'' (West-Eastern Divan, 1819).]]
	Müller was born on 6 December 1828 in Dessau, in the Duchy of Anhalt-Dessau, one of the 38 German states formed after the [[Napoleonic Wars]] and organised into a loose [[German Confederation]]. Essentially a city-state, Dessau was in a region where the cultures of neighbouring Saxony and Prussia, the cities of Leipzig, Dresden and Berlin, and Thuringian courts such as Saxe-Weimar were in easy reach. It was also a place where aristocrats, officials and the		Müller was born on 6 December 1828 in Dessau, in the Duchy of Anhalt-Dessau, one of the 38 German states formed after the [[Napoleonic Wars]] and organised into a loose [[German Confederation]]. Essentially a city-state, Dessau was in a region where the cultures of neighbouring Saxony and Prussia, the cities of Leipzig, Dresden and Berlin, and Thuringian courts such as Saxe-Weimar were in easy reach. It was also a place where aristocrats, officials and the
	town population were familiar to each other. As Max Müller would later describe it, ‘Everybody seemed to know everybody and everything about everybody’. Max Müller was born into the cultured, educated class that attended court and served as intermediaries between town and state. From an early age he was familiar with aristocrats, politicians and leading cultural figures of the times.		town population were familiar to each other. As Max Müller would later describe it, ‘Everybody seemed to know everybody and everything about everybody’. Max Müller was born into the cultured, educated class that attended court and served as intermediaries between town and state. From an early age he was familiar with aristocrats, politicians and leading cultural figures of the times.
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	Müller's chief friends were [[Theodor Fontane]], so well known later as a novel writer, and Leopold Friedrich Prowe, afterwards a master at the [[Thorn]] Gymnasium, with whom he formed an intimate friendship. On 1 September 1843, Müller passed his examination (''[[Dissertation]]'') for the degree of Phil. Doc. (Dr. phil.). The translation of the ''Hitopadesa'' was brought out in March 1844; the book is dedicated to Brockhaus. Towards the end of his University career at Leipzig, Prince Wilhelm of Dessau, who had in 1840 married Emilie, his mother's cousin, expressed a wish to adopt Max Müller, and put him into the Austrian Diplomatic Service. ''"I at once said no,"'' he tells us in the [https://ia800200.us.archive.org/24/items/myautobiographyf00mull/myautobiographyf00mull.pdf ''My Autobiography'']; ''"it seemed to interfere with my freedom, with my studies, with my ideal of a career in life."'' Max had long felt an ardent wish to go for a year to [[Berlin]] to study Sanskrit under Bopp, but more especially Philosophy under Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling.		Müller's chief friends were [[Theodor Fontane]], so well known later as a novel writer, and Leopold Friedrich Prowe, afterwards a master at the [[Thorn]] Gymnasium, with whom he formed an intimate friendship. On 1 September 1843, Müller passed his examination (''[[Dissertation]]'') for the degree of Phil. Doc. (Dr. phil.). The translation of the ''Hitopadesa'' was brought out in March 1844; the book is dedicated to Brockhaus. Towards the end of his University career at Leipzig, Prince Wilhelm of Dessau, who had in 1840 married Emilie, his mother's cousin, expressed a wish to adopt Max Müller, and put him into the Austrian Diplomatic Service. ''"I at once said no,"'' he tells us in the [https://ia800200.us.archive.org/24/items/myautobiographyf00mull/myautobiographyf00mull.pdf ''My Autobiography'']; ''"it seemed to interfere with my freedom, with my studies, with my ideal of a career in life."'' Max had long felt an ardent wish to go for a year to [[Berlin]] to study Sanskrit under Bopp, but more especially Philosophy under Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling.
	[[File:Friedrich Max Müller and the Sacred Books of the East by Arie L. Molendijk.~~jpg~~\|thumb\|310px\|Personal life, from ''Friedrich Max Müller and the Sacred Books of the East'' by Arie L. Molendijk]]		[[File:Friedrich Max Müller and the Sacred Books of the East by Arie L. Molendijk.png\|thumb\|310px\|Personal life, from ''Friedrich Max Müller and the Sacred Books of the East'' by Arie L. Molendijk]]
	===Rediscovering Max Müller===		===Rediscovering Max Müller===
	: ''For most of the twentieth century, Friedrich Max Müller was largely unknown to or ignored by historians and academics, whether in his adopted homeland Britain, in Germany where he was born and educated, or in India, the subject of much of his research. To some extent, research had moved on. Max Müller’s achievements were viewed with increasing criticism and even disdain.1 He simply no longer fitted in with prevailing interests. The intellectual complexities of the nineteenth century generally attracted less interest among younger generations. The central themes of Max Müller’s work—ancient Sanskrit texts and their significance to the development of myth, religion and language—lost their relevance in Europe. The [[First World War\|First]] and [[Second World War]]s put paid to sustained interest in non-military aspects of the Anglo-German relationship. The history of Empire moved from diplomatic to peripheral explanations, and left the cultural aspects of the subject to one side. But in the last decades of the century, interest in Max Müller began to return. A residual appreciation of the value of his work remained in the various areas in which he had published. [...] This childhood world was given a severe jolt when Wilhelm Müller died in 1827 and Max Müller recalled these early years as melancholy. His education, mainly focusing on classics and religion, was conducted at first at the town public school in Dessau until Max Müller was sent, aged 12, to the Nicolai Grammar School in [[Leipzig]]. Here he lodged with Professor Carl Gustav Carus (1789–1869), whose son, Victor (1823–1903) went to school with Max Müller and who would later himself also take up a position at Oxford University. The Nicolai school was one of the most prominent and revered institutions of the day. Its list of alumni famously included Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) and its focus was almost entirely on Greek and Latin. Max Müller’s passion at the time was for music. In Leipzig he renewed contact with the composer [[Felix Mendelssohn]] (1809–1847), whom he had come to know during the latter’s previous appointment at the Dessau court and who was now conductor at the Gewandhaus. But he excelled at school in classics and it was his classical education that to some extent determined Max Müller’s future course. In 1841 Max Müller entered Leipzig University with a scholarship from Anhalt-Dessau to study for the doctorate in philology, mainly in Greek and Latin, taught respectively by Johann Gottfried Hermann (1772–1848) and Moritz Haupt (1808–1874). However, despite learning much from them, Max Müller later described these studies as ‘chewing of the cud’ (My Autobiography, p. 129), and academic freedom at the university enabled him to extend his studies to other areas including philosophy and Oriental languages. Max Müller’s time at Leipzig coincided with the intellectual furore caused by [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel\|G.W.F. Hegel’s]] (1770–1831) theories of intellectual evolution which, in turn, drew him towards philosophy as an area of inquiry. At the same time, however, he encountered the ideas of Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841) in the lectures of Moritz Wilhelm Drobisch (1802–1896), which he described as ‘a most useful antidote’ to the complexities Hegel’s thought had unearthed (My Autobiography, p. 142). Herbart’s ideas, combined with Max Müller’s preoccupation with classical languages and philosophy, resulted in a growing fascination with what he would later identify as the ‘Science of Language’. [...] While at Leipzig, Max Müller published a new edition of his father’s Griechenlieder (1844), reflecting his personal interest in his father’s work and also establishing his cultural and literary lineage in the public’s mind. He also, however, published a translation of the Hitopadesha—a collection of Sanskrit fables concerning statecraft—the same year. [...] By focusing on Sanskrit and ancient Indian culture, Max Müller was moving himself into an intellectual space that was seen by many, particularly in the German states, as at the cutting edge of philosophy, philology and religious thought. Ancient Sanskrit texts, some believed, offered insight into a system of thought and belief predating the classical period, and would therefore increase knowledge of the present day by unearthing detail further in the past and by enabling greater understanding of the true, original meaning of philosophy and its concepts. Similarly, those who believed the [[Bible]] could be better understood by historical investigation than by literal interpretation believed Sanskrit texts may help cast light on the original meanings of Scripture. [...]''		: ''For most of the twentieth century, Friedrich Max Müller was largely unknown to or ignored by historians and academics, whether in his adopted homeland Britain, in Germany where he was born and educated, or in India, the subject of much of his research. To some extent, research had moved on. Max Müller’s achievements were viewed with increasing criticism and even disdain.1 He simply no longer fitted in with prevailing interests. The intellectual complexities of the nineteenth century generally attracted less interest among younger generations. The central themes of Max Müller’s work—ancient Sanskrit texts and their significance to the development of myth, religion and language—lost their relevance in Europe. The [[First World War\|First]] and [[Second World War]]s put paid to sustained interest in non-military aspects of the Anglo-German relationship. The history of Empire moved from diplomatic to peripheral explanations, and left the cultural aspects of the subject to one side. But in the last decades of the century, interest in Max Müller began to return. A residual appreciation of the value of his work remained in the various areas in which he had published. [...] This childhood world was given a severe jolt when Wilhelm Müller died in 1827 and Max Müller recalled these early years as melancholy. His education, mainly focusing on classics and religion, was conducted at first at the town public school in Dessau until Max Müller was sent, aged 12, to the Nicolai Grammar School in [[Leipzig]]. Here he lodged with Professor Carl Gustav Carus (1789–1869), whose son, Victor (1823–1903) went to school with Max Müller and who would later himself also take up a position at Oxford University. The Nicolai school was one of the most prominent and revered institutions of the day. Its list of alumni famously included Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) and its focus was almost entirely on Greek and Latin. Max Müller’s passion at the time was for music. In Leipzig he renewed contact with the composer [[Felix Mendelssohn]] (1809–1847), whom he had come to know during the latter’s previous appointment at the Dessau court and who was now conductor at the Gewandhaus. But he excelled at school in classics and it was his classical education that to some extent determined Max Müller’s future course. In 1841 Max Müller entered Leipzig University with a scholarship from Anhalt-Dessau to study for the doctorate in philology, mainly in Greek and Latin, taught respectively by Johann Gottfried Hermann (1772–1848) and Moritz Haupt (1808–1874). However, despite learning much from them, Max Müller later described these studies as ‘chewing of the cud’ (My Autobiography, p. 129), and academic freedom at the university enabled him to extend his studies to other areas including philosophy and Oriental languages. Max Müller’s time at Leipzig coincided with the intellectual furore caused by [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel\|G.W.F. Hegel’s]] (1770–1831) theories of intellectual evolution which, in turn, drew him towards philosophy as an area of inquiry. At the same time, however, he encountered the ideas of Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841) in the lectures of Moritz Wilhelm Drobisch (1802–1896), which he described as ‘a most useful antidote’ to the complexities Hegel’s thought had unearthed (My Autobiography, p. 142). Herbart’s ideas, combined with Max Müller’s preoccupation with classical languages and philosophy, resulted in a growing fascination with what he would later identify as the ‘Science of Language’. [...] While at Leipzig, Max Müller published a new edition of his father’s Griechenlieder (1844), reflecting his personal interest in his father’s work and also establishing his cultural and literary lineage in the public’s mind. He also, however, published a translation of the Hitopadesha—a collection of Sanskrit fables concerning statecraft—the same year. [...] By focusing on Sanskrit and ancient Indian culture, Max Müller was moving himself into an intellectual space that was seen by many, particularly in the German states, as at the cutting edge of philosophy, philology and religious thought. Ancient Sanskrit texts, some believed, offered insight into a system of thought and belief predating the classical period, and would therefore increase knowledge of the present day by unearthing detail further in the past and by enabling greater understanding of the true, original meaning of philosophy and its concepts. Similarly, those who believed the [[Bible]] could be better understood by historical investigation than by literal interpretation believed Sanskrit texts may help cast light on the original meanings of Scripture. [...]''

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	===Hostile criticism===		===Hostile criticism===
	* ''While he was alive, Max Müller was celebrated by most educated Indians, although conservatives condemned his magisterial edition of the of the Rig Veda (in the original rather than as as a translation) along with Sayanacharya’s commentary, considering it sacrilegious for women, lower castes and outcastes to have access to that sacred knowledge. More liberal thinkers such as Swami Vivekananda applauded the German scholar’s “long and arduous task of exciting interest, overriding opposition and contempt, and at last creating a respect for the thoughts of the sages of ancient India”. In the years following Independence, a counter-narrative emerged, which demonised the German Indologist as a zealot determined to interpret Indian history in the light of his literal reading of Biblical chronology. Max Müller committed two unpardonable sins from the perspective of the Hindu ~~nationalists~~ who have grown prominent in the past few decades. First, he dated the composition of the early Vedic hymns to a period of around 1500 BC to 1200 BC, far too late for Hindutvavadis.''<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210720013208/https://scroll.in/article/805556/epic-battle-the-hindutvavadi-attack-on-a-19th-century-scholar-that-presaged-the-war-on-pollock Epic battle: The Hindutvavadi attack on a 19th-century scholar that presaged the war on Pollock], 2016</ref>		* ''While he was alive, Max Müller was celebrated by most educated Indians, although conservatives condemned his magisterial edition of the of the Rig Veda (in the original rather than as as a translation) along with Sayanacharya’s commentary, considering it sacrilegious for women, lower castes and outcastes to have access to that sacred knowledge. More liberal thinkers such as Swami Vivekananda applauded the German scholar’s “long and arduous task of exciting interest, overriding opposition and contempt, and at last creating a respect for the thoughts of the sages of ancient India”. In the years following Independence, a counter-narrative emerged, which demonised the German Indologist as a zealot determined to interpret Indian history in the light of his literal reading of Biblical chronology. Max Müller committed two unpardonable sins from the perspective of the Hindu fascists who have grown prominent in the past few decades. First, he dated the composition of the early Vedic hymns to a period of around 1500 BC to 1200 BC, far too late for Hindutvavadis.''<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210720013208/https://scroll.in/article/805556/epic-battle-the-hindutvavadi-attack-on-a-19th-century-scholar-that-presaged-the-war-on-pollock Epic battle: The Hindutvavadi attack on a 19th-century scholar that presaged the war on Pollock], 2016</ref>

	==Memberships==		==Memberships==

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