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{{Template:Intelligence}}

'''Intelligence''' has been defined in many different ways as including, but not limited to, aspects of problem solving, abstract thought, understanding, learning ability, reasoning, memory, planning, perception, and communication.

Intelligence is most widely studied in humans. Several approaches to human intelligence have been adopted. [[IQ]] tests and related tests are the most researched and by far the most widely used in practical settings.<ref name=APA1995>{{cite journal |author=Neisser U |title=Rising Scores on Intelligence Tests |journal=American Scientist |volume=85 |pages=440–7 |year=1997 |url=http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/feature/rising-scores-on-intelligence-tests/1}}</ref><ref name=APA1995/>

There have also been research on intelligence in animals and even plants. [[Artificial intelligence]] is the simulation of intelligence in machines.

== Etymology ==
From [[latin]] inter- "between" + legere "choose, pick out".<ref>Intelligence. Online etymology dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=intelligence&searchmode=none</ref>

==Definitions==
The definition of intelligence is controversial. Groups of scientists have stated the following:
<ol><li>from "[[Mainstream Science on Intelligence]]" (1994), an editorial statement by fifty-two researchers:
{{quote|A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—"catching on," "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do.<ref name=Gottfredson1997>{{Cite journal |author=Gottfredson, L.S. |year=1997 |title=Foreword to "intelligence and social policy" |journal=Intelligence |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1016/S0160-2896(97)90010-6 |url=http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/1997specialissue.pdf |format=pdf}}</ref>}}</li>
<li>from "[[Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns]]" (1995), a report published by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the [[American Psychological Association]]:
{{quote|Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. Although these individual differences can be substantial, they are never entirely consistent: a given person's intellectual performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different criteria. Concepts of "intelligence" are attempts to clarify and organize this complex set of phenomena. Although considerable clarity has been achieved in some areas, no such conceptualization has yet answered all the important questions, and none commands universal assent. Indeed, when two dozen prominent theorists were recently asked to define intelligence, they gave two dozen, somewhat different, definitions. s (Stemberg & Detterman, 1986). Such disagreements are not cause for dismay. Scientific research rarely begins with fully agreed definitions, though it may eventually lead to them.<ref name=Neisser1998>{{Cite journal |author=Neisser, U. |coauthors=Boodoo, G.; Bouchard Jr, T.J.; Boykin, A.W.; Brody, N.; Ceci, S.J.; Halpern, D.F.; Loehlin, J.C.; Perloff, R.; Sternberg, R.J.; Others, |year=1998 |title=Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns |journal=Annual Progress in Child Psychiatry and Child Development 1997 |isbn=978-0-87630-870-7 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=gLWnmVbKdLwC&pg=PA95&dq=Intelligence:+Knowns+and+unknowns}</ref><ref name=Perloff1996>{{Cite journal |author=Perloff, R. |coauthors=Sternberg, R.J.; Urbina, S. |year=1996 |title= Intelligence: knowns and unknowns |journal=American Psychologist |volume=51}}</ref>}}</li></ol>

Besides the foregoing definitions, these [[psychology]] and [[learning]] researchers also have defined intelligence as:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="140"| Researcher
! Quotation
|-
| [[Alfred Binet]]
| Judgment, otherwise called "good sense," "practical sense," "initiative," the faculty of adapting one's self to circumstances ... auto-critique.<ref name=Binet1905>{{Cite book |last=Binet |first=Alfred |chapter=New methods for the diagnosis of the intellectual level of subnormals |title=The development of intelligence in children: The Binet-Simon Scale |others=E.S. Kite (Trans.) |location=Baltimore |publisher=Williams & Wilkins |year=1916 |origyear=1905 |pages=37–90 |chapterurl=http://psychclassics.asu.edu/Binet/binet1.htm |accessdate=10 July 2010 |quote=originally published as Méthodes nouvelles pour le diagnostic du niveau intellectuel des anormaux. L'Année Psychologique, 11, 191-244}}</ref>
|-
| [[David Wechsler]]
| The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wechsler |first=D |authorlink=David Wechsler |title=The measurement of adult intelligence |publisher=Williams & Wilkins |location=Baltimore |year=1944 |isbn=0-19-502296-3 |oclc=219871557 5950992}} ASIN = B000UG9J7E</ref>
|-
| [[Lloyd Humphreys]]
| "...the resultant of the process of acquiring, storing in memory, retrieving, combining, comparing, and using in new contexts information and conceptual skills."<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Humphreys, L. G. |year=1979 |title=The construct of general intelligence |journal=Intelligence |volume=3 |pages=105–120 |doi=10.1016/0160-2896(79)90009-6 |issue=2}}</ref>
|-
|[[Cyril Burt]]
|Innate general cognitive ability<ref name=Burt1931>{{Cite journal |author=Burt, C. |year=1931 |title=The Differentiation Of Intellectual Ability |journal=The British Journal of Educational Psychology}}</ref>
|-
|[[Howard Gardner]]
|To my mind, a human intellectual competence must entail a set of skills of [[problem solving]] — enabling the individual to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that he or she encounters and, when appropriate, to create an effective product — and must also entail the potential for finding or creating problems — and thereby laying the groundwork for the acquisition of new knowledge.<ref name= "isbn0465025102">{{Cite book |title=Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |year=1993 |isbn=0-465-02510-2 |oclc=221932479 27749478 32820474 56327755 9732290 |authormask=Gardner, Howard}}</ref>
|-
|[[Linda Gottfredson]]
|The ability to deal with cognitive complexity.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The General Intelligence Factor |journal=Scientific American Presents |author=Gottfredson, L. |url= http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/1998generalintelligencefactor.pdf |format=pdf|year=1998 |pages=24–29 |volume=9 |issue=4}}</ref>
|-
|Sternberg & Salter
|[[Goal-oriented|Goal-directed]] adaptive behavior.<ref name="isbn0521296870">{{Cite book |author=Sternberg RJ |authorlink=Robert Sternberg |coauthor=Salter W |title=Handbook of human intelligence |publisher= Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1982 |isbn=0-521-29687-0 |oclc=11226466 38083152 8170650}}</ref>
|-
|[[Reuven Feuerstein]]
|The theory of Structural Cognitive Modifiability describes intelligence as "the unique propensity of human beings to change or modify the structure of their cognitive functioning to adapt to the changing demands of a life situation."<ref>Feuerstein, R., Feuerstein, S., Falik, L & Rand, Y. (1979; 2002). Dynamic assessments of cognitive modifiability. ICELP Press, Jerusalem: Israel; Feuerstein, R. (1990). The theory of structural modifiability. In B. Presseisen (Ed.), Learning and thinking styles: Classroom interaction. Washington, DC: National Education Associations</ref>
|-
|}

What is considered intelligent varies with culture. For example, when asked to sort, the [[Kpelle]] in western Africa take a functional rather than linguistic approach. A Kpelle participant stated "the knife goes with the orange because it cuts it." When asked how a fool would sort, they sorted linguistically, putting the knife with other implements and the orange with other foods, which is the style considered intelligent in other cultures.<ref>Glick (1975) reported in Resnick, L. (1976). The Nature of Intelligence. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.</ref>

== Approaches to human intelligence==
=== IQ and related tests ===
{{Main|Intelligence quotient}}
The dominant approach to understanding intelligence with by far the most published research and practical use is the [[psychometrics|psychometric]] approach as represented by [[Intelligence quotient]] (IQ) tests and related tests. Non-IQ psychometric tests are primarily not intended to measure intelligence itself but some closely related construct such as scholastic aptitude. One example in the US is the [[SAT]] test. Both the IQ and the non-IQ tests are highly correlated with one another which has been interpreted as evidence for the existence of an underlying general mental ability or factor (the ''g'' factor).<ref name=APA1995/>

There are critics of IQ and ''g'' who do not dispute the stability of IQ test scores or the fact that they predict certain forms of achievement rather effectively. They do argue, however, that to base a concept of intelligence on IQ test scores alone is to ignore many important aspects of mental ability.<ref name=APA1995/>

On the other hand, [[Linda S. Gottfredson]] has argued that the results of thousands of studies support the importance of IQ for school and job performance. IQ also predicts or correlates with numerous other life outcomes. In contrast, empirical support for non-''g'' intelligences is lacking or very poor. She argued that despite this the ideas of multiple non-''g'' intelligences are very attractive to many due to the suggestion that everyone can be smart in some way.<ref>Gottfredson, L. S. (2006). Social consequences of group differences in cognitive ability (Consequencias sociais das diferencas de grupo em habilidade cognitiva). In C. E. Flores-Mendoza & R. Colom (Eds.), Introducau a psicologia das diferencas individuais (pp. 433-456). Porto Allegre, Brazil: ArtMed Publishers.</ref>

===Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences===
[[Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences]] argues that there are multiple, only weakly correlated intelligences. Proposed intelligences include Spatial, Linguistic, Logical-mathematical, Bodily-kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalistic, and possibly also Existential and Moral. In contrast, modern IQ tests measure many abilities but these are highly correlated with one another.

[[Howard Gardner]]'s theory has been heavily criticized. When tested, it was found that the different "intelligences" actually correlated with the ''g'' factor, supporting the idea of a single dominant type of intelligence. According to the study, each of the domains proposed by Gardner involved a blend of ''g'', of cognitive abilities other than ''g'', and, in some cases, of non-cognitive abilities or of personality characteristics.<ref>{{cite journal|author=|title=g and the measurement of Multiple Intelligences: A response to Gardner|journal=Intelligence|volume=34|issue =5|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2006.04.006|year= 2006|pages=507–510|url=http://forum-files2.fobby.net/0005/6817/VisserRebuttal.pdf|last1=Visser|first1=Beth A.|last2=Ashton|first2=Michael C.|last3=Vernon|first3=Philip A.}}</ref> It has been further argued that there are no supporting empirical studies and that neuroscientific research have demonstrated that the human brain is unlikely to function as proposed by Gardner.<ref name=Waterhouse2006>Waterhouse, Lynn. (2006). "Inadequate Evidence for Multiple Intelligences, Mozart Effect, and Emotional Intelligence Theories." Educational Psychologist, 41(4), Fall 2006, pp. 247–255.</ref><ref>Steven A. Stahl. Different Strokes for Different Folks? A Critique of Learning Styles. American Educator (Fall 1999), pp. 27-3 http://home.centurytel.net/msv/Documents/Learning-Styles-Different%20Strokes.pdf</ref>

===Triarchic theory of intelligence===
[[Robert Sternberg]] has proposed the [[triarchic theory of intelligence]] (later renamed the . It argues that there are three different intelligences. Analytic intelligence is measured by IQ tests. In addition there are also creative intelligence (see creativity below) and practical intelligence. Practical intelligence have been argued to be related to job performance but relatively uncorrelated with IQ.<ref name=APA1995/> The theory has been updated and renamed as the Theory of Successful Intelligence.<ref name="Sternberg1999">{{cite journal|last1=Sternberg|first1=Robert J.|title=The theory of successful intelligence.|journal=Review of General Psychology|volume=3|issue=4|year=1999|pages=292–316|issn=1089-2680|doi=10.1037/1089-2680.3.4.292}}</ref>

Sternberg's theories and research on intelligence remain contentious within the scientific community.<ref name=Brody2003a>{{Cite journal |author=Brody, N. |year=2003 |title=Construct validation of the Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test: Comment and reanalysis |journal=Intelligence |volume=31 |pages=319–329 |doi=10.1016/S0160-2896(01)00087-3 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name=Brody2003b>{{Cite journal |author=Brody, N. |year=2003 |title =What Sternberg should have concluded |journal=Intelligence |volume=31 |pages=339–342 |doi=10.1016/S0160-2896(02)00190-3 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name=Gottfredson2003a>{{Cite journal |author=Gottfredson, L.S. |year=2003 |title=Dissecting practical intelligence theory: Its claims and evidence |journal=Intelligence |volume=31 |pages=343–397 |doi=10.1016/S0160-2896(02)00085-5 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name=Gottfredson2003b>{{Cite journal |author=Gottfredson, L.S. |year=2003 |title=On Sternberg's 'Reply to Gottfredson{{'-}} |journal=Intelligence |volume=31 |pages=415–424 |doi=10.1016/S0160-2896(03)00024-2 |issue=4}}</ref>

====PASS Theory of Intelligence====
The [[PASS Theory of Intelligence]] proposes that cognition is organized in three systems and four processes. The first is the Planning, which involves executive functions responsible for controlling and organizing behavior, selecting and constructing strategies, and monitoring performance. The second is the Attention process, which is responsible for maintaining arousal levels and alertness, and ensuring focus on relevant stimuli. The next comprise two processes, Simultaneous and Successive processing to encode, transform, and retain information. Simultaneous processing is engaged when the relationship between items and their integration into whole units of information is required. Examples of this include recognizing figures, such as a triangle within a circle vs. a circle within a triangle, or the difference between "he had a shower before breakfast" and "he had breakfast before a shower." Successive processing is required for organizing separate items in a sequence such as remembering a sequence of words or actions exactly in the order in which they had just been presented. These four processes are functions of four areas of the brain. Planning is broadly located in the front part of our brains, the frontal lobe. Attention and arousal are combined functions of the frontal lobe and the lower parts of the cortex, although the parietal lobes are also involved in attention as well. Simultaneous processing and Successive processing occur in the posterior region or the back of the brain. Simultaneous processing is broadly associated with the occipital and the parietal lobes while Successive processing is broadly associated with the frontal-temporal lobes.<ref>Luria, A. R. (1973). The working brain: An introduction to neuropsychology. New York.</ref><ref>Das,J.P.(2002) A Better look at Intelligence. Current Directions in Psychology, 11(1), 28-32.</ref><ref>Das, J. P., Naglieri, J. A., & Kirby, J. R. (1994). Assessment of cognitive processes. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.</ref>

The PASS theory is not incompatible with IQ tests and several modern IQ tests have been influenced by it. The different processes in the PASS theory have been seen as corresponding to different abilities in the [[Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory]] which has also influenced modern IQ tests.<ref name=IQT>IQ Testing 101, Alan S. Kaufman, 2009, Springer Publishing Company, ISBN 0826106293
ISBN 9780826106292</ref>

===Piaget's theory and Neo-Piagetian theories===
In [[Piaget's theory of cognitive development]], by [[Jean Piaget]], the focus is not on mental abilities but rather on a child's mental models of the world. As a child develops, increasingly more accurate models of the world are developed which enable the child to interact with the world better. One example being [[object permanence]] where the child develops a model where objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.

Piaget's theory described four main stages and many sub-stages in the development. Degree of progress through these is correlated with but is not identical with psychometric IQ.<ref name="Elkind, D. 1969">Elkind, D., & Flavell, J. (1969). ''Studies in cognitive development: Essays in honor of Jean Piaget''. New York: Oxford University Press</ref><ref>Intelligence and IQ, Landmark Issues and Great Debates, Richard A. Weinberg AmericanVol. 44, No. 2, 98-104</ref> Piaget conceptualizes intelligence as an activity more than a capacity.

[[Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development]] expand Piaget's theory in various ways such as also considering psychometric-like factors such as processing speed and working memory, "hypercognitive" factors like self-monitoring, more stages, and more consideration on how progress may vary in different domains such as spatial or social.<ref>Demetriou, A. (1998). Cognitive development. In A. Demetriou, W. Doise, K.F.M. van Lieshout (Eds.), Life-span developmental psychology (pp. 179-269). London: Wiley.</ref><ref>Demetriou, A., Mouyi, A., & Spanoudis, G. (2010). The development of mental processing. Nesselroade, J.R. (2011). Methods in the study of life-span human development: Issues and answers. In W.F. Overton (Ed.), ''Biology, cognition and methods across the life-span. Volume 1 of the Handbook of life-span development'' (pp. 36-35), Editor-in-chief: R.M. Lerner. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.</ref>

Piaget's theory has been criticized for the age of appearance of a new model of the world, such as object permanence, being dependent on how the testing is done. More generally, the theory may be very difficult to test empirically due to the difficulty of proving or not proving that a certain mental model is the explanation for the results of testing.<ref name="Kitchener1993">{{cite journal|last1=Kitchener|first1=Richard F.|title=Piaget's epistemic subject and science education: Epistemological vs. psychological issues|journal=Science and Education|volume=2|issue=2|year=1993|pages=137–148|issn=0926-7220|doi=10.1007/BF00592203}}</ref>

==Human intelligence and human personality traits ==
Intelligence is not the only psychological factor determining a person's success. Personality traits such as self-discipline, good work motivation, and need for achievement are likely also important.

==Creativity==
Several different tests with goal of measuring [[creativity]] have been constructed. The most well-known may be the [[Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking]]. Research using such tests have generally found creativity to be different from IQ.

It has also been argued that creativity is a form of personality rather than a cognitive ability. The trait [[openness to experience]], one of the [[Big Five personality trait]]s, has been argued to be particularly linked to creativity.

==Evolution of human intelligence==
{{Main|Evolution of human intelligence}}
The ancestors of [[modern humans]] evolved large and complex brains exhibiting an ever-increasing intelligence through a long evolutionary process. Different explanations have been proposed.

== Recent and possible future change in human intelligence ==
:''See: [[Dysgenics]], [[Eugenics]], [[Neuroethics]], [[Human genetic engineering]], [[Transhumanism]]''

==Animal and plant intelligence==
Although humans have been the primary focus of intelligence researchers, scientists have also attempted to investigate animal intelligence, or more broadly, animal cognition. These researchers are interested in studying both mental ability in a particular species, and comparing abilities between species. They study various measures of problem solving, as well as mathematical and language abilities. Some challenges in this area are defining intelligence so that it means the same thing across species (e.g. comparing intelligence between literate humans and illiterate animals), and then operationalizing a measure that accurately compares mental ability across different species and contexts.

It has been argued that plants should also be classified as being intelligent based on their ability to sense the environment and adjust their [[morphology (biology)|morphology]], [[plant physiology|physiology]] and [[phenotypic plasticity|phenotype]] accordingly.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Trewavas |first=Anthony |date = September 2005|title=Green plants as intelligent organisms |journal=Trends in Plant Science |pmid=16054860 |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=413–419 |doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2005.07.005}}</ref><ref name="Trewavas2002">{{cite journal|last1=Trewavas|first1=Anthony|title=Plant intelligence: Mindless mastery|journal=Nature|volume=415|issue=6874|year=2002|pages=841–841|issn=00280836|doi=10.1038/415841a}}</ref>

==Artificial intelligence==
Artificial intelligence (or AI) is both the intelligence of machines and the branch of [[computer science]] which aims to create it, through "the study and design of [[intelligent agents]]"<ref name=Poole>{{Cite book |author=Goebel, Randy; Poole, David L.; Mackworth, Alan K. |title=Computational intelligence: A logical approach |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=1997 |pages=1 |isbn=0-19-510270-3 |url=http://www.cs.ubc.ca/spider/poole/ci/ch1.pdf |format=pdf}}</ref> or "rational agents", where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success.<ref name=Russell>{{Cite book |author=Canny, John; Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter |title=Artificial intelligence: A modern approach |publisher=Prentice Hall |location= Englewood Cliffs, N.J. |year=2003 |isbn=0-13-790395-2 |oclc=51325314 60211434 61259102}}</ref> Achievements in artificial intelligence include constrained and well-defined problems such as games, [[crossword]]-solving and [[optical character recognition]]. General intelligence or [[strong AI]] has not yet been achieved and is a long-term goal of AI research.

Among the traits that researchers hope machines will exhibit are reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, communication]], perception, and the ability to move and manipulate objects.<ref name=Poole/><ref name=Russell/> In the field of artificial intelligence there is no consensus on how closely the brain should be simulated.

{{references}}
{{wikipedia}}

[[Category:Intelligence]]
[[Category:IQ]]

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