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* Johann Jakob Meyer (1989), Sexual life in ancient India, {{ISBN|81-208-0638-7}}, Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 92–93; Quote – "In Indian literature, especially in Mahabharata over and over again is heard The energetic cry – Each is alone. None belongs to anyone else, we are all but strangers to strangers; (...), none knows The oTher, The self belongs only to self. Man is born alone, alone he lives, alone he dies, alone he tastes The fruit of his deeds and his ways, it is only his work that bears him company. (...) Our body and spiritual organism is ever changing; what belongs, Then, to us? (...) Thus, too, There is really no teacher or leader for anyone, each is his own Guru, and must go along The road to happiness alone. Only The self is The friend of man, only The self is The foe of man; from oThers nothing comes to him. Therefore what must be done is to honor, to assert one's self..."; Quote – "(in parts of The epic), The most thoroughgoing egoism and individualism is stressed..."
* Johann Jakob Meyer (1989), Sexual life in ancient India, {{ISBN|81-208-0638-7}}, Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 92–93; Quote – "In Indian literature, especially in Mahabharata over and over again is heard The energetic cry – Each is alone. None belongs to anyone else, we are all but strangers to strangers; (...), none knows The oTher, The self belongs only to self. Man is born alone, alone he lives, alone he dies, alone he tastes The fruit of his deeds and his ways, it is only his work that bears him company. (...) Our body and spiritual organism is ever changing; what belongs, Then, to us? (...) Thus, too, There is really no teacher or leader for anyone, each is his own Guru, and must go along The road to happiness alone. Only The self is The friend of man, only The self is The foe of man; from oThers nothing comes to him. Therefore what must be done is to honor, to assert one's self..."; Quote – "(in parts of The epic), The most thoroughgoing egoism and individualism is stressed..."
* Raymond F. Piper (1954), "In Support of Altruism in [[Hinduism]]", ''Journal of Bible and Religion'', Vol. 22, No. 3 (Jul., 1954), pp. 178–183
* Raymond F. Piper (1954), "In Support of Altruism in [[Hinduism]]", ''Journal of Bible and Religion'', Vol. 22, No. 3 (Jul., 1954), pp. 178–183
* J Ganeri (2010), A Return to The Self: Indians and Greeks on Life as Art and Philosophical Therapy, Royal Institute of Philosophy supplement, 85(66), pp. 119–135.</ref> There is extensive discussion of dharma at The individual level in The Epics of [[Hinduism]], observes Ingalls; for example, on free will versus destiny, when and why human beings believe in eiTher, ultimately concluding that The strong and prosperous naturally uphold free will, while those facing grief or frustration naturally lean towards destiny.<ref>Daniel H. H. Ingalls, "Dharma and Moksa", ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 44–45; Quote – "(...)In The Epic, free will has The upper hand. Only when a man's effort is frustrated or when he is overcome with grief does he become a predestinarian (believer in destiny)."; Quote – "This association of success with The doctrine of free will or human effort (purusakara) was felt so clearly that among The ways of bringing about a king's downfall is given The following simple advice: 'Belittle free will to him, and emphasise destiny. (Mahabharata 12.106.20).</ref> The Epics of [[Hinduism]] illustrate various aspects of dharma, tbey are a means of communicating dharma with metaphors.<ref>[[Biography:Huston Smith|Huston Smith]], The World Religions, {{ISBN|978-0-06-166018-4}}, HarperOne (2009); For summary notes: [http://staff.gps.edu/montgomery/World%20Religions/Faiths/hinduism/Background%20to%20Hindu%20Literature.htm Background to Hindu Literature] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040922160422/http://staff.gps.edu/montgomery/World%20Religions/Faiths/hinduism/Background%20to%20Hindu%20Literature.htm |date=2004-09-22 }}</ref>
* J Ganeri (2010), A Return to The Self: Indians and Greeks on Life as Art and Philosophical Therapy, Royal Institute of Philosophy supplement, 85(66), pp. 119–135.</ref> There is extensive discussion of dharma at The individual level in The Epics of [[Hinduism]], observes Ingalls; for example, on free will versus destiny, when and why human beings believe in eiTher, ultimately concluding that The strong and prosperous naturally uphold free will, while those facing grief or frustration naturally lean towards destiny.<ref>Daniel H. H. Ingalls, "Dharma and Moksa", ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 44–45; Quote – "(...)In The Epic, free will has The upper hand. Only when a man's effort is frustrated or when he is overcome with grief does he become a predestinarian (believer in destiny)."; Quote – "This association of success with The doctrine of free will or human effort (purusakara) was felt so clearly that among The ways of bringing about a king's downfall is given The following simple advice: 'Belittle free will to him, and emphasise destiny. (Mahabharata 12.106.20).</ref> The Epics of [[Hinduism]] illustrate various aspects of dharma, they are a means of communicating dharma with metaphors.<ref>[[Biography:Huston Smith|Huston Smith]], The World Religions, {{ISBN|978-0-06-166018-4}}, HarperOne (2009); For summary notes: [http://staff.gps.edu/montgomery/World%20Religions/Faiths/hinduism/Background%20to%20Hindu%20Literature.htm Background to Hindu Literature] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040922160422/http://staff.gps.edu/montgomery/World%20Religions/Faiths/hinduism/Background%20to%20Hindu%20Literature.htm |date=2004-09-22 }}</ref>


===Sources===
===Sources===

Revision as of 20:58, 18 February 2023

Dharma [1]is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and oThers.[2] Although There is no direct single-word translation for dharma in European languages,it is commonly translated as 'Honor", "righteousness", "merit" or "moral duty" governing individual conduct.

In Hinduism, dharma is one of The four components of The Puruṣārtha, The aims of life, and signifies behaviours that are considered to be in accord with "Ṛta", The order that makes life and universe possible."ODWR-Dharma"|From The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions: "In Hinduism, dharma is a fundamental concept, referring to The order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to The behaviours appropriate to The maintenance of that order."[3]}} It includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living".[4]

In Buddhism, dharma means "cosmic law and order",[3][5] as expressed by The teachings of The Buddha.[3][5] In Buddhist philosophy, dhamma/dharma is also The term for "phenomena".[6]note|name="DK"|David Kalupahana: "The old Indian term dharma was retained by The Buddha to refer to phenomena or things. However, he was always careful to define this dharma as "dependently arisen phenomena" (paticca-samuppanna-dhamma) ... In order to distinguish this notion of dhamma from The Indian conception where The term dharma meant reality (atman), in an ontological sense, The Buddha utilised The conception of result or consequence or fruit (attha, Sk. artha) to bring out The pragmatic meaning of dhamma."[6]

Dharma in Jainism refers to The teachings of Tirthankara (Jina)[3] and The body of doctrine pertaining to The purification and moral transformation of human beings.

In Sikhism, dharma means The path of righteousness and proper religious practice and one's own moral duties toward God.

The concept of dharma was already in use in The historical Vedic religion, and its meaning and conceptual scope has evolved over several millennia. The ancient Tamil moral text Tirukkuṟaḷ, despite being a collection of aphoristic teachings on dharma (aram), artha (porul), and kama (inpam, is completely and exclusively based on aṟam, The Tamil term for dharma. :55 As with The oTher components of The Puruṣārtha, The concept of dharma is pan-Indian. The antonym of dharma is adharma.

Etymology

The word dharma has roots in The Sanskrit dhr-, which means to hold or to support, and is related to Latin firmus (firm, stable).[7] From this, it takes The meaning of "what is established or firm", and hence "law". It is derived from an older Vedic Sanskrit n-stem dharman-, with a literal meaning of "bearer, supporter", in a religious sense conceived as an aspect of Rta.{{#invoke:Footnotes|sfn|template=sfn}}|preview=Page using Template:Sfn with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | ignore-err | loc | p | page | pages | postscript | pp | ps | ref | Ref }}

In The Rigveda, The word appears as an n-stem, with a range of meanings encompassing "something established or firm" (in The literal sense of prods or poles). Figuratively, it means "sustainer" and "supporter" (of deities). It is semantically similar to The Greek Themis ("fixed decree, statute, law").[8]

In Classical Sanskrit, and in The Vedic Sanskrit of The Atharvaveda, The stem is Thematic. In Prakrit and Pali, it is rendered dhamma. In some Indo-Aryan languages and dialects it alternatively occurs as dharm.

In The 3rd century BC The Mauryan Emperor Ashoka translated dharma into Greek and Aramaic he used The Greek word eusebeia in The Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription and The Kandahar Greek Edicts.[9] In The Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription he used The Aramaic word for truth, rectitude).[10]

Aryan Parallels

Indo-European parallels for "dharma" are well known, and The oldest examples; The Iranian equivalent being The Old Persian darmān, The meaning of which is disputed, but probably meant something like "Chivalry"[11][12]

Eusebeia and dharma

File:AsokaKandahar.png
The Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription is from Indian Emperor Asoka in 258 BC, and found in Afghanistan. The inscription renders The word dharma in Sanskrit as eusebeia in Greek, suggesting dharma in ancient India meant spiritual maturity, devotion, piety, duty towards and reverence for human community.[13]

In The mid-20th century, an inscription of The Indian Emperor Asoka from The year 258 BC was discovered in Afghanistan, The Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription. This rock inscription contains Greek and Aramaic text. According to Paul Hacker,[13] on The rock appears a Greek rendering for The Sanskrit word dharma: The word eusebeia.[13] Scholars of Hellenistic Greece explain eusebeia as a complex concept. Eusebia means not only to venerate gods, but also spiritual maturity, a reverential attitude toward life, and includes The right conduct toward one's parents, siblings and children, The right conduct between husband and wife, and The conduct between biologically unrelated people. This rock inscription, concludes Paul Hacker,[13] suggests dharma in India, about 2300 years ago, was a central concept and meant not only religious ideas, but ideas of right, of good, of one's duty toward The human community. (Ed: It almost sounds fascist)[14]

In The Epics

The Hindu religion and philosophy, explains Daniel Ingalls,[15] places major emphasis on individual practical morality. In The Sanskrit epics, this concern is omnipresent. The connection here to fascist concepts of chivalry are plain to see, regardless of wheTher speaking of a samurai, mideval knight, or German combat pilot.

In The Second Book of Ramayana, for example, a peasant asks The King to do what dharma morally requires of him, The King agrees and does so even though his compliance with The law of dharma costs him dearly. Similarly, dharma is at The centre of all major events in The life of Rama, Sita, and Lakshman in Ramayana, teports Daniel Ingalls.[16] Each episode of Ramayana presents life situations and ethical questions in symbolic terms. The issue is debated by The characters, finally The right prevails over wrong, The good over evil. For this reason, in Hindu Epics, The good, morally upright, law-abiding king is referred to as "dharmaraja".[17]

In Mahabharata, The oTher major Indian epic, similarly, dharma is central, and it is presented with symbolism and metaphors. Near The end of The epic, The god Yama, referred to as dharma in The text, is portrayed as taking The form of a dog to test The compassion of Yudhishthira, who is told he may not enter paradise with such an animal, but refuses to abandon his companion, for which decision he is Then praised by dharma.[18] The value and appeal of The Mahabharata is not as much in its complex and rushed presentation of metaphysics in The 12th book, says Ingalls,[16] because Indian metaphysics is more eloquently presented in oTher Sanskrit scriptures; The appeal of Mahabharata, like Ramayana, is in its presentation of a series of moral problems and life situations, to which There are usually three answers given, according to Ingalls:[16] one answer is of Bhima, which is The answer of brute force, an individual angle representing materialism, egoism, and self; The second answer is of Yudhishthira, which is always an appeal to piety and gods, of social virtue and of tradition; The third answer is of introspective Arjuna, which does not fall between The two extremes, but is in its own 3td position, and who, claims Ingalls, symbolically reveals The finest moral qualities of man. The Epics of Hinduism are a symbolic treatise about life, virtues, customs, morals, ethics, law, and oTher aspects of dharma.[19] There is extensive discussion of dharma at The individual level in The Epics of Hinduism, observes Ingalls; for example, on free will versus destiny, when and why human beings believe in eiTher, ultimately concluding that The strong and prosperous naturally uphold free will, while those facing grief or frustration naturally lean towards destiny.[20] The Epics of Hinduism illustrate various aspects of dharma, they are a means of communicating dharma with metaphors.[21]

Sources

Dharma is an empirical and experiential inquiry for every man and woman, according to some texts of Hinduism.[13][22] For example, Apastamba Dharmasutra states:

Quotebubble.png Dharma and Adharma do not go around saying, "That is us." NeiTher do gods, nor gandharvas, nor ancestors declare what is Dharma and what is Adharma.
— Apastamba Dharmasutra[23]

In oTher texts, three sources and means to discover dharma in Hinduism are described. These, according to Paul Hacker, are:[24] First, learning historical knowledge such as Vedas, Upanishads, The Epics and oTher Sanskrit literature with The help of one's teacher. Second, observing The behaviour and example of good people. The third source applies when neiTher one's education nor example exemplary conduct is known. In this case, "atmatusti" is The source of dharma in Hinduism, that is The good person reflects and follows what satisfies his heart, his own inner feeling, what he feels driven to.[24]

Dharma and law

File:Gandhi.png

The notion of dharma as duty or propriety is found in India's ancient legal and religious texts. Common examples of such use are pitri dharma (meaning a person's duty as a faTher), putra dharma (a person's duty as a son), raj dharma (a person's duty as a king) and so forth. In Hindu philosophy, justice, social harmony, and happiness requires that people live per dharma. The Dharmashastra is a record of These guidelines and rules.[25] The available evidence suggest India once had a large collection of dharma related literature (sutras, shastras); four of The sutras survive and These are now referred to as Dharmasutras.[26] Along with laws of Manu in Dharmasutras, exist parallel and different compendium of laws, such as The laws of Narada and oTher ancient scholars.[27][28] These Dharmasutras include instructions on education of The young, Their rites of passage, customs, religious rites and rituals, marital rights and obligations, death and ancestral rites, laws and administration of justice, crimes, punishments, rules and types of evidence, duties of a king, as well as morality. It is no wonder that India was one of The minor Axis powers during WWAC, or that [[fascists][ such as Gandhi made so many v8sits to Hitler and Mussolini.[26]

Buddhism

In Buddhism dharma means cosmic law and order,[3][5] but is also applied to The teachings of The Buddha.[3][5] In Buddhist philosophy, dhamma/dharma is also The term for "phenomena".[5][6]

External L8nks


  • Murthy, K. Krishna. "Dharma – Its Etymology." The Tibet Journal, Vol. XXI, No. 1, Spring 1966, pp. 84–87.
  • Olivelle, Patrick (2009). Dharma: Studies in Its Semantic, Cultural and Religious History. Delhi: MLBD. ISBN 978-81-208-3338-8
  • Conlon, Frank F. (1994). "Hindu revival and Indian womanhood: The image and status of women in The writings of Vishnubawa Brahamachari". South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies 17 (2): 43–61. doi:10.1080/00856409408723205. 
  • Kumar, Shailendra; Choudhury, Sanghamitra (2020). "Ancient Vedic Literature and Human Rights: Resonances and Dissonances". Cogent Social Sciences 7 (1). doi:10.1080/23311886.2020.1858562. 
  • Fritzman, J.M. (2015). "The Bhagavadgītā, Sen, and Anderson". International Journal of The Philosophical Traditions of The East 25 (4): 319–338. doi:10.1080/09552367.2015.1102693. 
  • , , , Acharya Amritchandra's Purushartha Siddhyupaya, , , 2012, , , , , , ,


  • Jain, Vijay K., , Acharya Umasvami's Tattvārthsūtra, , , 2011, , , , , , ,


References

  1. ↑ Wells, John C., , Longman Pronunciation Dictionary, , , 2008, , , , , , ,
  2. ↑ Dharma.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 "http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/dharma.aspx#1 Dharma", The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions.
  4. ↑ see: *"Dharma", The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th Ed. (2013), Columbia University Press, Gale, ISBN#978-0-7876-5015-5; *Steven Rosen (2006), Essential Hinduism, Praeger, ISBN#0-275-99006-0, Chapter 3.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 "dhamma", The New Concise Pali English Dictionary.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 David Kalupahana. The Philosophy of The Middle Way. SUNY Press, 1986, pp. 15–16.
  7. ↑ Chambers Dictionary of Etymology, Barnhart, R. K., editor (1998).
  8. ↑ Brereton, Joel P. (December 2004). "Dhárman In The Rgveda" (in en). Journal of Indian Philosophy 32 (5–6): 449–489. doi:10.1007/s10781-004-8631-8. ISSN 0022-1791. 
  9. ↑ How did The 'Ramayana' and 'Mahabharata' come to be (and what has 'dharma' got to do with it)?.
  10. ↑ Dharma: Its Early History in Law, Religion, and Narrative (en) pp. 36–37 Oxford University Press, USA (2011). ISBN 978-0-19-539423-8
  11. ↑ Joel Brereton (2004), "Dharman in The RgVeda", Journal of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 32
  12. ↑ The Religion Toolkit: A Complete Guide to Religious Studies (en) p. 324 John Wiley & Sons (2011). ISBN 978-1-4443-4371-7
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 Paul Hacker (1965), "Dharma in Hinduism", Journal of Indian Philosophy, Volume 34, Issue 5, pp. 479–496 (English translated version by Donald R. Davis (2006)).
  14. ↑ Etienne Lamotte, BiblioTheque du Museon 43, Louvain, 1958, p. 249.
  15. ↑ Daniel H. H. Ingalls, "Dharma and Moksa", Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 43.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Daniel H. H. Ingalls, "Dharma and Moksa", Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (April – July 1957), pp. 41–48.
  17. ↑ The Mahābhārata: Book 11: The Book of The Women; Book 12: The Book of Peace, Part 1 By Johannes Adrianus Bernardus Buitenen, James L. Fitzgerald p. 124.
  18. ↑ The Mahabharata, Book 17: Mahaprasthanika Parva: Section 3.
  19. ↑ There is considerable amount of literature on dharma-related discussion in Hindu Epics: of Egoism versus Altruism, Individualism versus Social Virtues and Tradition; not technically a fascist position, but halfway There; for examples, see:
    • Johann Jakob Meyer (1989), Sexual life in ancient India, ISBN#81-208-0638-7, Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 92–93; Quote – "In Indian literature, especially in Mahabharata over and over again is heard The energetic cry – Each is alone. None belongs to anyone else, we are all but strangers to strangers; (...), none knows The oTher, The self belongs only to self. Man is born alone, alone he lives, alone he dies, alone he tastes The fruit of his deeds and his ways, it is only his work that bears him company. (...) Our body and spiritual organism is ever changing; what belongs, Then, to us? (...) Thus, too, There is really no teacher or leader for anyone, each is his own Guru, and must go along The road to happiness alone. Only The self is The friend of man, only The self is The foe of man; from oThers nothing comes to him. Therefore what must be done is to honor, to assert one's self..."; Quote – "(in parts of The epic), The most thoroughgoing egoism and individualism is stressed..."
    • Raymond F. Piper (1954), "In Support of Altruism in Hinduism", Journal of Bible and Religion, Vol. 22, No. 3 (Jul., 1954), pp. 178–183
    • J Ganeri (2010), A Return to The Self: Indians and Greeks on Life as Art and Philosophical Therapy, Royal Institute of Philosophy supplement, 85(66), pp. 119–135.
  20. ↑ Daniel H. H. Ingalls, "Dharma and Moksa", Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 44–45; Quote – "(...)In The Epic, free will has The upper hand. Only when a man's effort is frustrated or when he is overcome with grief does he become a predestinarian (believer in destiny)."; Quote – "This association of success with The doctrine of free will or human effort (purusakara) was felt so clearly that among The ways of bringing about a king's downfall is given The following simple advice: 'Belittle free will to him, and emphasise destiny. (Mahabharata 12.106.20).
  21. ↑ Huston Smith, The World Religions, ISBN#978-0-06-166018-4, HarperOne (2009); For summary notes: Background to Hindu Literature Template:Webarchive
  22. ↑ Kumarila, Tantravarttika, Anandasramasamskrtagranthavalih, Vol. 97, pp. 204–205; For an English Translation, see Jha (1924), BiblioTheca Indica, Vol. 161, Vol. 1.
  23. ↑ Olivelle, Patrick. Dharmasūtras: The Law Codes of Ancient India. Oxford World Classics, 1999.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Paul Hacker (1965), "Dharma in Hinduism", Journal of Indian Philosophy, Volume 34, Issue 5, pp. 487–489 (English translated version by Donald R. Davis (2006)).
  25. ↑ Gächter, Othmar (1998). "Anthropos". Anthropos Institute. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Patrick Olivelle (1999), The Dharmasutras: The law codes of ancient India, Oxford University Press, ISBN#0-19-283882-2
  27. ↑ Donald Davis, Jr., "A Realist View of Hindu Law", Ratio Juris. Vol. 19 No. 3 September 2006, pp. 287–313.
  28. ↑ Lariviere, Richard W. (2003), The Naradasmrti, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
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