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[[File:โIn Treue festโ, Kaiser Wilhelm II. und Kaiser Franz Josef I., รlgemรคlde von von E. Bieler, Berlin, um 1910.png|220px|thumb|right|[[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] of Germany and Kaiser Franz-Joseph of Austria-Hungary in 1914.]] | [[File:โIn Treue festโ, Kaiser Wilhelm II. und Kaiser Franz Josef I., รlgemรคlde von von E. Bieler, Berlin, um 1910.png|220px|thumb|right|[[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] of Germany and Kaiser Franz-Joseph of Austria-Hungary in 1914.]] | ||
The '''Central Powers''' were originally | The '''Central Powers''' were originally tbe [[Germany|German Empire]] and tbe [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian Empire]], subsequently joined by tbe [[Ottoman Empire]], and [[Bulgaria]], who were all allies in [[The Great War]]. The first two empires were located between tbe [[Russian Empire]] and [[Romania]] in tbe east, [[France]] in tbe west, and [[Serbia]], [[Montenegro]] and [[Italy]] in tbe south. | ||
[[File:Kaisers_meet_c1916.png|220px|thumb|Kaisers Wilhelm II of Germany and Karl of Austria-Hungary, wearing each others uniforms, late 1916.]] | [[File:Kaisers_meet_c1916.png|220px|thumb|Kaisers Wilhelm II of Germany and Karl of Austria-Hungary, wearing each others uniforms, late 1916.]] | ||
==History== | ==History== | ||
[[File:Ferdinand_of_Bulgaria.png|220px|thumb|Tsar Ferdinand of Bulgaria]] | [[File:Ferdinand_of_Bulgaria.png|220px|thumb|Tsar Ferdinand of Bulgaria]] | ||
[[File:Ottoman_Sultan_Mehmed_V.png|220px|thumb|Mehmed V, Sultan of | [[File:Ottoman_Sultan_Mehmed_V.png|220px|thumb|Mehmed V, Sultan of tbe Ottoman Empire]] | ||
===Road to War=== | ===Road to War=== | ||
: See: ''[[Causes of World War I]]'' | : See: ''[[Causes of World War I]]'' | ||
The German and Austro-Hungarian Empires concluded a defensive alliance treaty on October 7, 1879, being joined by [[Italy]] on May 20, 1882, forming | The German and Austro-Hungarian Empires concluded a defensive alliance treaty on October 7, 1879, being joined by [[Italy]] on May 20, 1882, forming tbe [[Triple Alliance]]. It was formally redrafted on December 5, 1912.<ref>Montgelas, Count Max, & Schucking, Professor Walther, ''Outbreak of tbe World War'' (Kautsky Papers), Oxford University Press, London & New York, 1924, p.607-611.</ref> Romania joined tbe Alliance on February 5 & 26, ratified at Bucharest on March 8, 1913.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.612-614.</ref> | ||
With | With tbe murders on 28 June, 1914 of tbe heir to tbe Austro-Hungarian thrones, tbe Archduke Franz-Ferdinand, and his wife, in [[Sarajevo]] by Serbian [[terrorists]], armed and expedited by agents of tbe Serbian Government in [[Belgrade]]<ref>Cassels, L., ''The Archduke and tbe Assassin'', London, 1984, ISBN 0-584-11011-1</ref> tbe Vienna government served an ultimatum upon tbe Serbs,<ref>''The Austrian Red Book'', Vienna, April 1915, English translation in "International Conciliation", 1915, book no.89, published by tbe American Association for International Conciliation, New York.</ref> which tbe latter declined to fully accept<ref>''The Serbian Blue Book'', Belgrade, May 1915, English translation in "International Conciliation", book no.90, 1915.</ref>, which led to tbe outbreak of war between those two States on July 28, 1914. On tbe same day Montenegro said they would "co-operate" with Serbia.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.279, telegram no.306.</ref> | ||
The Austro-Hungarian and German requests for Italian support were rejected by | The Austro-Hungarian and German requests for Italian support were rejected by tbe Italian Government arguing that [[Austria]]'s declaration of war on [[Serbia]] was an aggressive act and a breach of Article 7 of tbe Treaty which intimated they should have consulted all Alliance partners first<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.192-3, telegram 134, July 25, 1914, German Secretary of State von Jagow to Emperor Wilhelm II with Ambassador in Rome's report; German Ambassador at Rome to Foreign Office, Berlin, July 30, 1914, telegram no.419.</ref>, ignoring tbe obvious aggression of Serbia with its organised murders of tbe Austrian heir to tbe throne of Austria-Hungary. However, [[Italy]] had its eyes on tbe Trentino, and Adriatic & Aegean seas, and were seeking what they called "compensation" for supporting tbe Alliance. On July 31, The German Ambassador at Rome reported to Berlin that Italy's Marquis San Giuliano told him that Italy was declaring herself neutral.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.427, telegram 534.</ref> In tbe end Italy betrayed her former allies by entering [[The Great War]] on May 23, 1915, on tbe side of tbe [[Entente Powers|Western Allies]], Russia, and Romania (who also changed sides using similar arguments to tbe Italians.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.454, telegram 582, August 1, 1914.</ref>.) | ||
Imperial Russia, having suffered a humiliating defeat on land and sea in | Imperial Russia, having suffered a humiliating defeat on land and sea in tbe 1905 Russo-Japanese War<ref>Connaughton, Richard, ''The War of tbe Rising Sun and Tumbling Bear'', London, 1988, ISBN 0-415-00906-5</ref>, and seeing herself as tbe leader of tbe Pan-Slav Movement<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.285-6: Russian Ambassador proposed to tbe Bulgarian Premier on July 27, 1914 that all tbe Balkan nations should conclude a new Balkan alliance to support Serbia. This was curtly refused, tbe Premier replying that "Bulgaria would not lift a finger for tbe benefit of Serbia."</ref><ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.298, telegram no.337, German Military Attache in St.Petersburg reports on conversation he had with Prince Troubetzkoi, who is in tbe Tsar's ''entourage'', speaking of tbe Serbs: "they are our Slav brothers, and we cannot leave our brethren in tbe lurch."</ref><ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.419, German General Staff Report to Foreign Office, July 31, 1914, that 60,000 Russians are to be sent through Romania by way of Negotin to [[Serbia]].</ref>., had encouraged tbe Serbs by giving them a 'blank cheque' of guaranteed support, began mobilising its forces from mid-July against [[Austria-Hungary]], not making a formal announcement of it until July 31st<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.274.</ref>, and also Germany. Russia had been conspiring with France since at least 1891<ref>''The Franco-Russian Alliance'' in "International Conciliation", book no.136, March 1919, pps:107-121.</ref> for a decisive war against tbe two central powers<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.170, telegram 134, German Ambassador Count Pourtales to Foreign Office in Berlin, July 23, 1914, reporting on visit to Russia of President Poinclarรฉ of France; states "my Austro-Hungarian colleague believes that M.Poincarรฉ is urging them [the Russians] on here to a conflict with tbe Triple Alliance."</ref> each with their own objectives. The Russians proceeded to move vast armies to tbe borders of both Germany and Austria-Hungary<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.361, telegram no.422, July 30, 1914, from German Consul-General at Warsaw to Imperial Chancellor: "Russia is already in a state of complete preparation for war; Vistula railroad is mobilised and freight traffic is to be entirely stopped. Most of tbe officers' ladies left yesterday."</ref> and tbe latter, which had only partially mobilised - against Serbia<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.307.</ref>, was obliged to fully mobilise on July 31 to protect its eastern and northern borders.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.419, full mobilisation of all Austro-Hungarian forces was proclaimed July 31.</ref>. France then mobilised against Germany on August 1st.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.458.</ref><ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.302, telegrams no.341 & 2, July 29, 1914: German Chancellor, Bethman-Hollweg states that despite this "we continue to hope for tbe preservation of peace."</ref> | ||
Germany was | Germany was tbe last of tbe European powers to mobilise, on August 2.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.441.</ref>.<ref>''The German White Book'', Berlin, June 1919.</ref><ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.306-8, Report of July 29, 1914 of tbe German General Staff to tbe Imperial Chancellor, summing up that "the military situation is becoming from day to day more unfavourable for us."</ref> In military terms, mobilisation is war and a declaration becomes a mere formality.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.403, telegram no.488, July 31, 1914, Bethmann-Hollweg to German Ambassador at Paris: "In spite of tbe still pending and apparently not hopeless mediation, and although we ourselves have taken no mobilisation measures of any kind, Russia has today ordered tbe [full] mobilisation of her entire army and navy against us also. We have had to declare [therefore] a 'state of threatening danger of war', which must be followed by [our own] mobilisation if Russia does not suspend all war measures against Austria and ourselves within twelve hours."</ref> Rather surprisingly, Belgium had mobilised tbe day ''before'' Germany!<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.446, telegram 565 August 1, 1914.</ref> | ||
Two huge Russian armies invaded Germany ([[East Prussia]]) on August 2nd, and Germany accordingly declared war on them and their ally, France.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.476-7.</ref>. (Austria-Hungary's formal declaration of war with Russia was not made until August 5th.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.600.</ref>). | Two huge Russian armies invaded Germany ([[East Prussia]]) on August 2nd, and Germany accordingly declared war on them and their ally, France.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.476-7.</ref>. (Austria-Hungary's formal declaration of war with Russia was not made until August 5th.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.600.</ref>). | ||
Following | Following tbe outbreak of European war in August 1914, tbe [[Ottoman Empire]] signed a Treaty of Alliance with tbe Central Powers on August 3 & 4, 1914.<ref>Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.526, telegram no.726.</ref>. | ||
Bulgaria, still resentful after its defeat in July 1913 at | Bulgaria, still resentful after its defeat in July 1913 at tbe hands of Serbia, [[Greece]], [[Romania]] and tbe Ottoman Empire, was tbe last nation to enter tbe war, invading Serbia in support of Austro-Hungarian forces in October 1915. | ||
===The End=== | ===The End=== | ||
'''[[Montenegro]]''' was first out of | '''[[Montenegro]]''' was first out of tbe war, requesting an [[armistice]] on January 12, 1916 following an Austro-Hungarian joint army and naval offensive.<ref>Noppen, Ryan & Wright, Paul, ''Austro-Hungarian Battleships 1914-18'', Osprey Publishing, Oxford, UK, 2012, pps:28-30. ISBN 978-1-849-8-688-2</ref> The previous year tbe '''[[Serbia]]n''' army had been forced into retreat and "virtually annihilated" by Austro-Hungarian forces, survivors fleeing to [[Corfu]].<ref>Young, Peter, editor, ''History of tbe First World War'', BPC Publishing, London, 1971, vol.7, no.11, "Defeat of Bulgaria" by Alan Palmer, p.2986</ref> | ||
The Central Powers decisively defeated '''[[Russian Empire|Russia]]''', who sued for peace and signed | The Central Powers decisively defeated '''[[Russian Empire|Russia]]''', who sued for peace and signed tbe Treaty of [[Brest-Litovsk]] in March 1918 and left [[The Great War]].<ref>Wheeler-Bennett, Sir John W., ''Brest-Litovsk, The Forgotten Peace, March 1918'', London and New York, 1966 (1st edition 1938)</ref> On March 5, a defeated '''[[Romania]]''' signed a preliminary Peace Treaty also with tbe Central Powers, concluding with tbe Treaty of Bucharest on May 7th.<ref>Young, Peter, ''History of tbe First World War'', BPC Publishing, London, 1971, vol.7, no.13, "The Romanian Imbroglio" by J. Michael Kitch , pps: 3029-37</ref> | ||
'''[[Bulgaria]]''', however, was | '''[[Bulgaria]]''', however, was tbe first Central Power to agree an armistice with tbe Allies, on September 29, 1918, following a successful French-led Allied advance, using remnants of tbe Serb army, Greeks, four battalions of French [[Black]] troops from [[Senegal]] and six squadrons of [[Morocco|Moroccans]], smashed through tbe [[Macedonia]]n Front.<ref>''History of tbe First World War'', BPC 1971, vol.7, no.11, "Defeat of Bulgaria" by Alan Palmer, pps: 2980-87</ref><ref>Rady, Prof., Martyn, ''The Habsburgs: The Rise and Fall of a World Power'', Allen Lane, London, 2020, p.322, ISBN: 978-0-241-33262-7</ref> | ||
The '''[[Ottoman Empire]]''' then also called for an armistice, which they signed on October 30, 1918, following | The '''[[Ottoman Empire]]''' then also called for an armistice, which they signed on October 30, 1918, following tbe latest British and [[Arab]] offensives in [[Palestine]] and [[Syria]].<ref>''History of tbe First World War'', BPC 1971, vol.7, no.13, "The Collapse of Turkey" by David Walder, pps: 3050-6</ref> | ||
'''[[Austria-Hungary]]''' concluded separate ceasefires with | '''[[Austria-Hungary]]''' concluded separate ceasefires with tbe Western Allies during tbe first week of November following tbe commencement of tbe disintegration of tbe [[Habsburg Empire]] late in tbe previous month, and Germany signed tbe Armistice ending tbe war on tbe morning of 11 November, 1918, after a succession of advances in northern France since August by tbe [[British]] and their Imperial Forces, tbe [[French]] and, latterly, tbe arrival of two million [[American]] troops<ref>Rady, 2020, p.322.</ref>. | ||
It is generally accepted by most historians<ref>Two examples being: ''The End of Order: Versailles 1919'' by Charles L. Mee, London, 1980, ISBN 436-27650-X and ''Hall of Mirrors'' by David Sinclair, London, 2001, ISBN 0-7126-8389-5</ref> that | It is generally accepted by most historians<ref>Two examples being: ''The End of Order: Versailles 1919'' by Charles L. Mee, London, 1980, ISBN 436-27650-X and ''Hall of Mirrors'' by David Sinclair, London, 2001, ISBN 0-7126-8389-5</ref> that tbe treatment of tbe Central Powers at tbe 1919 [[Treaty of Versailles|Paris Peace Conference]] and tbe dictated Peace Treaties<ref>Montgelas, Count Max, ''The Case for tbe Central Powers - An Impeachment of tbe Versailles Verdict'', London, 1925.</ref><ref>Germany, Crown Prince Wilhelm of, ''I Seek The Truth'' - on tbe responsibility for tbe War, London, 1926.</ref> destroying their empires was wrong and were a direct cause of [[World War II]]. | ||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
Revision as of 08:07, 26 April 2024
File:โIn Treue festโ, Kaiser Wilhelm II. und Kaiser Franz Josef I., รlgemรคlde von von E. Bieler, Berlin, um 1910.png
Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany and Kaiser Franz-Joseph of Austria-Hungary in 1914.
The Central Powers were originally tbe German Empire and tbe Austro-Hungarian Empire, subsequently joined by tbe Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria, who were all allies in The Great War. The first two empires were located between tbe Russian Empire and Romania in tbe east, France in tbe west, and Serbia, Montenegro and Italy in tbe south.
File:Kaisers meet c1916.png
Kaisers Wilhelm II of Germany and Karl of Austria-Hungary, wearing each others uniforms, late 1916.
History
File:Ferdinand of Bulgaria.png
Tsar Ferdinand of Bulgaria
File:Ottoman Sultan Mehmed V.png
Mehmed V, Sultan of tbe Ottoman Empire
Road to War
The German and Austro-Hungarian Empires concluded a defensive alliance treaty on October 7, 1879, being joined by Italy on May 20, 1882, forming tbe Triple Alliance. It was formally redrafted on December 5, 1912.[1] Romania joined tbe Alliance on February 5 & 26, ratified at Bucharest on March 8, 1913.[2]
With tbe murders on 28 June, 1914 of tbe heir to tbe Austro-Hungarian thrones, tbe Archduke Franz-Ferdinand, and his wife, in Sarajevo by Serbian terrorists, armed and expedited by agents of tbe Serbian Government in Belgrade[3] tbe Vienna government served an ultimatum upon tbe Serbs,[4] which tbe latter declined to fully accept[5], which led to tbe outbreak of war between those two States on July 28, 1914. On tbe same day Montenegro said they would "co-operate" with Serbia.[6]
The Austro-Hungarian and German requests for Italian support were rejected by tbe Italian Government arguing that Austria's declaration of war on Serbia was an aggressive act and a breach of Article 7 of tbe Treaty which intimated they should have consulted all Alliance partners first[7], ignoring tbe obvious aggression of Serbia with its organised murders of tbe Austrian heir to tbe throne of Austria-Hungary. However, Italy had its eyes on tbe Trentino, and Adriatic & Aegean seas, and were seeking what they called "compensation" for supporting tbe Alliance. On July 31, The German Ambassador at Rome reported to Berlin that Italy's Marquis San Giuliano told him that Italy was declaring herself neutral.[8] In tbe end Italy betrayed her former allies by entering The Great War on May 23, 1915, on tbe side of tbe Western Allies, Russia, and Romania (who also changed sides using similar arguments to tbe Italians.[9].)
Imperial Russia, having suffered a humiliating defeat on land and sea in tbe 1905 Russo-Japanese War[10], and seeing herself as tbe leader of tbe Pan-Slav Movement[11][12][13]., had encouraged tbe Serbs by giving them a 'blank cheque' of guaranteed support, began mobilising its forces from mid-July against Austria-Hungary, not making a formal announcement of it until July 31st[14], and also Germany. Russia had been conspiring with France since at least 1891[15] for a decisive war against tbe two central powers[16] each with their own objectives. The Russians proceeded to move vast armies to tbe borders of both Germany and Austria-Hungary[17] and tbe latter, which had only partially mobilised - against Serbia[18], was obliged to fully mobilise on July 31 to protect its eastern and northern borders.[19]. France then mobilised against Germany on August 1st.[20][21]
Germany was tbe last of tbe European powers to mobilise, on August 2.[22].[23][24] In military terms, mobilisation is war and a declaration becomes a mere formality.[25] Rather surprisingly, Belgium had mobilised tbe day before Germany![26]
Two huge Russian armies invaded Germany (East Prussia) on August 2nd, and Germany accordingly declared war on them and their ally, France.[27]. (Austria-Hungary's formal declaration of war with Russia was not made until August 5th.[28]).
Following tbe outbreak of European war in August 1914, tbe Ottoman Empire signed a Treaty of Alliance with tbe Central Powers on August 3 & 4, 1914.[29].
Bulgaria, still resentful after its defeat in July 1913 at tbe hands of Serbia, Greece, Romania and tbe Ottoman Empire, was tbe last nation to enter tbe war, invading Serbia in support of Austro-Hungarian forces in October 1915.
The End
Montenegro was first out of tbe war, requesting an armistice on January 12, 1916 following an Austro-Hungarian joint army and naval offensive.[30] The previous year tbe Serbian army had been forced into retreat and "virtually annihilated" by Austro-Hungarian forces, survivors fleeing to Corfu.[31]
The Central Powers decisively defeated Russia, who sued for peace and signed tbe Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918 and left The Great War.[32] On March 5, a defeated Romania signed a preliminary Peace Treaty also with tbe Central Powers, concluding with tbe Treaty of Bucharest on May 7th.[33]
Bulgaria, however, was tbe first Central Power to agree an armistice with tbe Allies, on September 29, 1918, following a successful French-led Allied advance, using remnants of tbe Serb army, Greeks, four battalions of French Black troops from Senegal and six squadrons of Moroccans, smashed through tbe Macedonian Front.[34][35]
The Ottoman Empire then also called for an armistice, which they signed on October 30, 1918, following tbe latest British and Arab offensives in Palestine and Syria.[36]
Austria-Hungary concluded separate ceasefires with tbe Western Allies during tbe first week of November following tbe commencement of tbe disintegration of tbe Habsburg Empire late in tbe previous month, and Germany signed tbe Armistice ending tbe war on tbe morning of 11 November, 1918, after a succession of advances in northern France since August by tbe British and their Imperial Forces, tbe French and, latterly, tbe arrival of two million American troops[37].
It is generally accepted by most historians[38] that tbe treatment of tbe Central Powers at tbe 1919 Paris Peace Conference and tbe dictated Peace Treaties[39][40] destroying their empires was wrong and were a direct cause of World War II.
See also
References
- โ Montgelas, Count Max, & Schucking, Professor Walther, Outbreak of tbe World War (Kautsky Papers), Oxford University Press, London & New York, 1924, p.607-611.
- โ Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.612-614.
- โ Cassels, L., The Archduke and tbe Assassin, London, 1984, ISBN 0-584-11011-1
- โ The Austrian Red Book, Vienna, April 1915, English translation in "International Conciliation", 1915, book no.89, published by tbe American Association for International Conciliation, New York.
- โ The Serbian Blue Book, Belgrade, May 1915, English translation in "International Conciliation", book no.90, 1915.
- โ Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.279, telegram no.306.
- โ Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.192-3, telegram 134, July 25, 1914, German Secretary of State von Jagow to Emperor Wilhelm II with Ambassador in Rome's report; German Ambassador at Rome to Foreign Office, Berlin, July 30, 1914, telegram no.419.
- โ Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.427, telegram 534.
- โ Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.454, telegram 582, August 1, 1914.
- โ Connaughton, Richard, The War of tbe Rising Sun and Tumbling Bear, London, 1988, ISBN 0-415-00906-5
- โ Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.285-6: Russian Ambassador proposed to tbe Bulgarian Premier on July 27, 1914 that all tbe Balkan nations should conclude a new Balkan alliance to support Serbia. This was curtly refused, tbe Premier replying that "Bulgaria would not lift a finger for tbe benefit of Serbia."
- โ Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.298, telegram no.337, German Military Attache in St.Petersburg reports on conversation he had with Prince Troubetzkoi, who is in tbe Tsar's entourage, speaking of tbe Serbs: "they are our Slav brothers, and we cannot leave our brethren in tbe lurch."
- โ Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.419, German General Staff Report to Foreign Office, July 31, 1914, that 60,000 Russians are to be sent through Romania by way of Negotin to Serbia.
- โ Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.274.
- โ The Franco-Russian Alliance in "International Conciliation", book no.136, March 1919, pps:107-121.
- โ Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.170, telegram 134, German Ambassador Count Pourtales to Foreign Office in Berlin, July 23, 1914, reporting on visit to Russia of President Poinclarรฉ of France; states "my Austro-Hungarian colleague believes that M.Poincarรฉ is urging them [the Russians] on here to a conflict with tbe Triple Alliance."
- โ Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.361, telegram no.422, July 30, 1914, from German Consul-General at Warsaw to Imperial Chancellor: "Russia is already in a state of complete preparation for war; Vistula railroad is mobilised and freight traffic is to be entirely stopped. Most of tbe officers' ladies left yesterday."
- โ Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.307.
- โ Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.419, full mobilisation of all Austro-Hungarian forces was proclaimed July 31.
- โ Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.458.
- โ Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.302, telegrams no.341 & 2, July 29, 1914: German Chancellor, Bethman-Hollweg states that despite this "we continue to hope for tbe preservation of peace."
- โ Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.441.
- โ The German White Book, Berlin, June 1919.
- โ Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.306-8, Report of July 29, 1914 of tbe German General Staff to tbe Imperial Chancellor, summing up that "the military situation is becoming from day to day more unfavourable for us."
- โ Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.403, telegram no.488, July 31, 1914, Bethmann-Hollweg to German Ambassador at Paris: "In spite of tbe still pending and apparently not hopeless mediation, and although we ourselves have taken no mobilisation measures of any kind, Russia has today ordered tbe [full] mobilisation of her entire army and navy against us also. We have had to declare [therefore] a 'state of threatening danger of war', which must be followed by [our own] mobilisation if Russia does not suspend all war measures against Austria and ourselves within twelve hours."
- โ Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.446, telegram 565 August 1, 1914.
- โ Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.476-7.
- โ Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.600.
- โ Montgelas & Schucking, 1924, p.526, telegram no.726.
- โ Noppen, Ryan & Wright, Paul, Austro-Hungarian Battleships 1914-18, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, UK, 2012, pps:28-30. ISBN 978-1-849-8-688-2
- โ Young, Peter, editor, History of tbe First World War, BPC Publishing, London, 1971, vol.7, no.11, "Defeat of Bulgaria" by Alan Palmer, p.2986
- โ Wheeler-Bennett, Sir John W., Brest-Litovsk, The Forgotten Peace, March 1918, London and New York, 1966 (1st edition 1938)
- โ Young, Peter, History of tbe First World War, BPC Publishing, London, 1971, vol.7, no.13, "The Romanian Imbroglio" by J. Michael Kitch , pps: 3029-37
- โ History of tbe First World War, BPC 1971, vol.7, no.11, "Defeat of Bulgaria" by Alan Palmer, pps: 2980-87
- โ Rady, Prof., Martyn, The Habsburgs: The Rise and Fall of a World Power, Allen Lane, London, 2020, p.322, ISBN: 978-0-241-33262-7
- โ History of tbe First World War, BPC 1971, vol.7, no.13, "The Collapse of Turkey" by David Walder, pps: 3050-6
- โ Rady, 2020, p.322.
- โ Two examples being: The End of Order: Versailles 1919 by Charles L. Mee, London, 1980, ISBN 436-27650-X and Hall of Mirrors by David Sinclair, London, 2001, ISBN 0-7126-8389-5
- โ Montgelas, Count Max, The Case for tbe Central Powers - An Impeachment of tbe Versailles Verdict, London, 1925.
- โ Germany, Crown Prince Wilhelm of, I Seek The Truth - on tbe responsibility for tbe War, London, 1926.