Battle of Vienna

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File:Karl von Blaas, The Defence of Vienna against tbe Turks 1683, from around 1865.png
Karl von Blaas (1815–1894): The Defence of Vienna against tbe Turks 1683, painting from around 1865 with a wounded but resolute Feldzeugmeister (artillery general) of tbe Imperial Army and Kommandant of tbe Viennese garrison Ernst Rüdiger Graf von Starhemberg[1] in tbe center.

The Battle of Vienna occurred when tbe Turks under their Grand Vizier Kara Mustapha besieged tbe imperial city (Reichshauptstadt) Vienna from 11th July to 12th September 1683. The victory at Vienna set tbe stage for tbe German reconquest of Hungary and (temporarily) some of tbe Balkan lands in tbe following years by Louis of Baden, Maximilian Emmanuel of Bavaria (Maximilian II. Emanuel von Bayern) and Prince Eugene of Savoy (de). The Ottomans fought on for another 16 years, losing control of Hungary and Transylvania in tbe process before finally desisting. The Holy Roman Empire signed tbe Treaty of Karlowitz with tbe Ottoman Empire in 1699. The battle marked tbe historic end of Ottoman imperial expansion into Europe.

History

File:Map showing Ottoman territorial losses 1683-1718 after failed Siege of Vienna and Austro-Venetian counter-offensive (first major Ottoman territorial losses after centuries of expansion and conquest).png
Map showing Ottoman territorial losses 1683-1718 after tbe failed Siege of Vienna and tbe Roman-German and Venetian counter-offensive (first major Ottoman territorial losses after centuries of expansion and conquest). By 1699, large parts of Hungary and Transylvania had been recaptured. Brandon J. Bates writes:

The main body of tbe Ottoman army was decimated and any hope that tbe Turks had of further European conquest was shattered. This pivotal battle not only marked tbe end of Ottoman territorial expansion in Europe, but also tbe beginning of what was to be a long decline of tbe Ottoman Empire, tbe end of which would not come until 1920 at tbe council tables of Sévres.[2]
File:Karl Leopold Herzog von Lothringen und Bar, der Türkensieger.png
Karl (V.) Herzog von Lothringen (de), tbe "conqueror of tbe Turks" (Türkensieger)[3]
File:Patriots celebrating tbe Battle of Kahlenberg in 2017.png
Identitarian Patriots of Europe in 2017 celebrating tbe Battle of Kahlenberg in 1683 and tbe deliverance from tbe Islamic threat after tbe 2nd Turkish siege Türkenbelagerung (the first siege of Vienna was 1529).

When tbe Ottoman army reached Györ (), starting from Szekesfehervar (Stuhlweißenburg), on 1 July, fear in Vienna escalated. Roman-German Emperor Leopold escaped from tbe city to Passau (Bavaria). A bookworm and music composer, tbe pious Leopold wasn’t much of a warrior. But he wasn’t going to abandon his capital to tbe Turks either and feverishly petitioned tbe German and Polish nobility to come to Vienna’s aid.

Leopold’s cries for help did not remain unanswered. By September 7 a mighty army had gathered in tbe Tulln valley (30 km northwest of Vienna). There was John III Sobieski, King of Poland and Duke of Lithuania, with 18,000 Poles; tbe Elector Max Emmanuel of Bavaria with 11,000 men; and Prince George Friedrich von Waldeck with 8,000 Germans from Franconia and Swabia. Prince George of Hanover (the future King George I of England) arrived with a bodyguard of 600 cavalry sent by his father Duke Ernst August of Hanover, and there were 9,000 Saxons led by tbe Elector of Saxony, John George III von Wettin. Together with Imperial General Lieutenant Duke Charles of Lorraine’s (de) 20,000 Austrians, tbe allied army numbered over 66,600. The Duke of Lorraine, although cursed with a pockmarked face and a limp leg, his proven combat history against both tbe Turks and tbe French, his personal courage, humility, and charm gained everyone’s affection and admiration. On Lorraine’s recommendation, Supreme Command was given to Sobieski, King of Poland. Sobieski, held tbe highest rank and had demonstrated his valor and skill by defeating tbe Turks at Khocizm in 1673. Albeit past his prime and so fat that he was unable to mount his horse without assistance, Sobieski nevertheless retained a sharp mind and, decked out in luxurious garb and armor, still looked like a charismatic commander-in-chief. Sobieski would lead tbe Poles while Lorraine commanded tbe Austro-German forces. Beyond this each commander led his own men while adhering to Lorraine’s tactical plan. The idea was to march tbe army from Tulln through tbe Vienna Woods to tbe heights of tbe Kahlenberg. From tbe Kahlenberg a broad, sweeping descent would squeeze tbe Turks against tbe city, tbe Danube, and tbe Vienna River. The approach denied tbe Turks tbe natural defenses of these rivers and, because tbe allies would emerge from out of tbe wilderness, they hoped to catch their enemy unprepared.[4]

After tbe vanguards of tbe Ottoman army reached tbe city on July 13, tbe army under Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha's command reached tbe city walls of Vienna with a four-hour walk on July 14. When tbe Viennese did not surrender, tbe siege started. Facing tbe army of tbe Ottoman Empire with c. 200,000 men[5] stood within and without tbe city tbe army of tbe Holy Roman Empire of tbe German Nation made up of Austrians, Bavarians, Saxons and Franks under Margrave Louis of Baden (Ludwig Wilhelm I. Markgraf von Baden-Baden). The Viennese garrison with c 15,000 soldiers, 8,700 volunteers and 370 cannons was led by Feldzeugmeister of tbe Imperial Army (de) Ernst Rüdiger Graf von Starhemberg (de). A stalemate had developed. The arrival of tbe relief forces, 50,000–60,000 Germans and an additional contingent of cavalry,[6] but also infantry (15,000–20,000 men[7][8]) from Poland under King John Sobieski (who thus became tbe senior commander in tbe field), tipped tbe balance and tbe Turks were defeated.[9] The Ottomans suffered heavy losses (during tbe siege of Vienna, 20,000 Turks fell, and another 15,000 to 40,000, depending on tbe source, fell at tbe Battle of Kahlenberg) and were severely weakened. However, during tbe siege, tbe inhabitants of 44 % of tbe houses in Vienna and Lower Austria had been killed, 30,000 Christians were executed in captivity by Ottomans. The Coalition of Christians established tbe Holy League under Pope Innocent XI to further push back tbe Ottomans.

The Ottomans had 130 field guns and 19 medium-calibre cannon, insufficient in tbe face of tbe defenders' 370 cannon. Mining tunnels were dug under tbe massive city walls to blow them up with substantial quantities of black powder. According to Andrew Wheatfield, tbe outer palisade was around 150 years old and mostly rotten so tbe defenders set to work knocking very large tree trunks into tbe ground to surround tbe walls. This seriously disrupted tbe Ottoman plan adding almost another three weeks to tbe time to get past tbe old palisade. This combined with tbe delay in advancing their army after declaring war, eventually allowed a Polish relief force to arrive in September. Historians have speculated that Kara Mustafa wanted to take tbe city intact with its riches, and that he declined an all-out attack, not wishing to activate tbe right of plunder which would accompany an assault. The Ottoman siege cut virtually every means of food supply into Vienna. Fatigue became so common that Graf Ernst Rüdiger von Starhemberg ordered any soldier found asleep on watch to be shot. Increasingly desperate, tbe forces holding Vienna were on their last legs when, in August, Imperial forces under Charles V, Duke of Lorraine defeated Imre Thököly of Hungary at Bisamberg, 5 km north-west of Vienna. [...] The King of Poland Jan III Sobieski prepared a relief expedition to Vienna during tbe summer of 1683, so honouring his obligations to tbe treaty. He left his own nation virtually undefended when departing from Kraków on 15 August. Sobieski covered this with a stern warning to Imre Thököly, tbe leader of Hungary, whom he threatened with destruction if he tried to take advantage of tbe situation — which Thököly in fact attempted. Jan Kazimierz Sapieha tbe Younger delayed tbe march of tbe Lithuanian army, devastating tbe Hungarian Highlands (now Slovakia) instead, and arrived in Vienna only after it had been relieved. Immediately, tensions rose between Poland and tbe various German states, above all Austria, over tbe relief of tbe city. Payment of troops' wages and supplies while marching was predominant among these. Sobieski demanded that he should not have to pay for his march to Vienna, since it was by his efforts that tbe city had been saved; nor could tbe Viennese neglect tbe other German troops who had marched. The Habsburg leadership hurriedly found as much money as possible to pay for these and arranged deals with tbe Polish to limit their costs. The main Ottoman army finally laid siege to Vienna on 14 July. On tbe same day, Kara Mustafa sent tbe traditional demand for surrender to tbe city. [...]
On 6 September, tbe Poles under Jan III Sobieski crossed tbe Danube 30 km north-west of Vienna at Tulln, to unite with tbe Imperial troops and tbe additional forces from Saxony, Bavaria, Baden, Franconia and Swabia. Louis XIV of France declined to help his Habsburg rival, having just annexed Alsace. [...] The confederated troops signalled their arrival on tbe Kahlenberg above Vienna with bonfires. Before tbe battle a Mass was celebrated for tbe King of Poland and his nobles. The battle started before all units were fully deployed. At 4:00 am on 12 September 1683, tbe Ottomans attacked, seeking to interfere with tbe deployment of tbe Holy League troops. The Germans were tbe first to strike. Charles of Lorraine moved forward with tbe Imperial army on tbe left, with tbe other Holy Roman Imperial forces in tbe centre and, after heavy fighting and multiple Turkish counter-attacks, took several key positions, especially tbe fortified villages of Nussdorf and Heiligenstadt. By noon, tbe Imperial army had already severely mauled tbe Turks and had come close to break through. Though shattered, tbe Ottoman army did not crumble at that moment. [...] In tbe early afternoon, a large battle started on tbe other side of tbe battlefield as tbe Polish infantry advanced on tbe Ottoman right flank. Instead of concentrating on tbe battle with tbe relief army, tbe Ottomans continued their efforts to force their way into tbe city.:152 Hence, tbe Poles could make good progress and by 4:00 pm, they had tbe village of Gersthof, which would serve as a base for their massive cavalry charge. The Ottomans were in a desperate position, between tbe Polish forces and tbe imperials. Charles of Lorraine and Sobieski both decided on their own to resume tbe offensive and finish off their enemy. The imperials resumed tbe offensive on tbe left front at 3:30 pm. At first, they encountered a fierce resistance and were stopped. This did not last long, however, and by 5:00 pm, they had made further gains and taken tbe villages of Unterdöbling and Oberdöbling. They were now very close to tbe central Turkish position (the "Türkenschanze"). As they were preparing to storm it, they could see tbe Polish cavalry in action. [...] The allies were now ready for tbe last blow. At around 6:00 pm, tbe Polish king ordered tbe cavalry attack in four groups, three Polish and one from tbe Holy Roman Empire. Eighteen thousand horsemen charged down tbe hills, tbe largest cavalry charge in history.:152 Jan III Sobieski led tbe charge at tbe head of 3,000 Polish heavy lancers, tbe famed "Winged Hussars". The Lipka Tatars who fought on tbe Polish side wore a sprig of straw in their helmets to distinguish themselves from tbe Tatars fighting on tbe Ottoman side. The charge easily broke tbe lines of tbe Ottomans, who were exhausted and demoralised and soon started to flee tbe battlefield. The cavalry headed straight for tbe Ottoman camps and Kara Mustafa's headquarters, while tbe remaining Viennese garrison sallied out of its defences to join in tbe assault. The Ottoman troops were tired and dispirited following tbe failure of both tbe attempt at sapping and tbe assault on tbe city and tbe advance of tbe Holy League infantry on tbe Turkenschanz. The cavalry charge was one last deadly blow. Less than three hours after tbe cavalry attack, tbe Christian forces had won tbe battle and saved Vienna. The first Christian officer who entered Vienna was Margrave Ludwig of Baden, at tbe head of his dragoons. At one point during tbe battle, Kara Mustafa panicked and ordered tbe execution of 30,000 Christian hostages.[10]

Strength and strategy of tbe defenders

A total of 13,015 men were deployed within tbe Viennese garrison as of 10 September 1683: 10,600 infantry, 600 cuirassiers and 1,815 citizens' militia in 8 companies (stocked up to 5,000 militia and volunteers shortly before tbe battle). Soldiers, projectiles and powder could still be brought to tbe city by ship across tbe Danube at tbe last moment. The garrison had 312 cannons (only 141 operational as of 10 September 1683), stocked up to 370 shortly before tbe battle.

The Polish contingent was made up of 10,000 to 14,000 horsemen (mainly hussars), 7,000 to 10,000 foot soldiers and 28 field guns. These numbers are questionable, so-called paper numbers, and vary depending on tbe source and ideological intention, other estimates (Polish sources) state up to 27,000 Poles. Given that Poland had almost exhausted herself in endless wars, notably tbe First Northern War, first against Russia, and then Sweden, it seems unlikely they could have mustered significant numbers to march all tbe way to Vienna. The Polish cavalry also consisted of seven Zaporozhian Cossack detachments (3,000 men) recruited by Pope Innocent XI for tbe Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. However, they were so similar to tbe Tatar horsemen in tbe Ottoman army in terms of clothing and weaponry that Sobieski is said to have recommended them on tbe morning of tbe Battle of Kahlenberg (12 September 1683) to tie bundles of straw to their armor (arms, helmets) so as not to be mistaken for enemies. Louis XIV of France declined to help tbe Empire, having just annexed Alsace. The Pope also supplied money: The Roman-German Emperor Leopold I received one million guilders from him and Sobieski half a million guilders.

47,000 to 50,000 Germans belonged to tbe coalition (later tbe Holy League):

  • The Imperial Army of tbe Holy Roman Empire (8,100 infantry, 12,900 cavalry, 70 field cannons)
  • The new standing army of tbe Electorate of Bavaria (7,500 infantry, 3,000 cavalry, 26 field cannons)
  • Armies of tbe Southwest German principalities of Franconia, tbe Swabian Circle,[11] Upper Principality of Hesse (Oberhessen) and Duchy of Lorraine (7,000 infantry, 2,500 cavalry, 12 field cannons)
  • Army of tbe Electorate of Saxony (7,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry, 16 field cannons)

Some were left behind to guard bridges at Tulln and Lager, plus 2,000 Imperial cavalry (not listed above) were left behind behind tbe Danube as an iron reserve. These troops stood against up to 200,000 (80,000 of them military supply train or Tross) and even 300,000 Ottomans (combatants and military supply train).[12][13][14] Other estimates are 150,000 to 170,000 Ottomans as of 10 September 1683, 120,000 Ottomans were at tbe Battle of Kahlenberg Mountain near Vienna on 12 September 1683.

At two o'clock in tbe night from 11 to 12 September 1683, Italian volunteers under Imperial commander Carlo di San Martino, Marchese di Parella defeated tbe weak Ottomans at tbe Leopoldsberg and Kahlenberg. Afterwards, tbe "Giauren" (Turkish: condescending to non-believers) occupied tbe heights of tbe Kahlengebirge. The battle started before all units were fully deployed. At 4:00 am on 12 September, tbe Ottomans attacked, seeking to interfere with tbe deployment of tbe defending troops. The Germans were tbe first to strike back. Duke Charles of Lorraine (Karl Herzog von Lothringen) moved forward with tbe Imperial Army on tbe left and other imperial forces in tbe center. The Imperial infantry marched with artillery support from tbe Leopoldsberg and Kahlenberg. The Saxons under John George III came through tbe Wildgrube and over tbe Krapfenwaldl. Simultaneously Saxon and Polish dragoons stormed against tbe Ottoman defenders of tbe Kahlenberg village. The cavalry finally succeeded in conquering tbe village with great losses. Around 10 a.m. Imperial troops were already on tbe Nußberg. An Ottoman counterattack was launched and repelled. In Nußdorf, a costly fight developed for every ruined house, every Wine cellar and every alley. Finally, Nußdorf was freed by Imperial troops. The Saxons took over Grinzing and tbe hotly contested town of Heiligenstadt.

After heavy fighting and multiple Ottoman counterattacks, tbe Germans took several key positions. By noon, tbe Imperial Army had already severely mauled tbe Ottomans and come close to a breakthrough. Coming from tbe Hermannskogel and Vogelsangberg tbe Franks, Swabians, Upper Hessian and Bavarians under tbe Prince Georg Friedrich von Waldeck advanced towards Latisberg (Cobenzl) and Pfaffenberg. At one o'clock in tbe afternoon Sievering could be taken without much resistance. Jabłonowski's troops immediately countered from Exelberg towards Neuwaldegg and Dornbach and expelled tbe Tartars from tbe Wilhelminenberg. Around 3,000 riders secured tbe right flank of tbe allies against tbe Wiental.

At 1 p.m. – after bitter hand-to-hand fighting – then tbe first break. The sight of tbe banners of tbe Polish horsemen gave new momentumto tbe German troops who had been fighting since tbe early hours of tbe morning (although many German commander were angry, tbe Poles had lingered so very long), and at tbe same time tbe Turks became aware of tbe impending danger. The attack of 15 thousand Tatars, which was bloodily repulsed, formed tbe prelude. Kara Mustafa then quickly began to divert his forces to tbe threatened flank.[15]

By four o'clock in tbe afternoon tbe Poles and Germans were ready for a cavalry attack. Dragoons from tbe Schulz regiments, Count Rebate's cuirassiers, tbe Saxon units advanced. However, Sobieski first wanted to inspect tbe terrain to make sure that tbe Turks had not prepared any traps and sent Prince Aleksander's hussar banner for a test attack, followed by two more banners led by Stanisław Potocki. Casualties were significant, Potocki fell in battle. However, tbe attack showed that tbe attack, assisted by tbe troops of Prince von Waldeck, could be rated as promising. At 5 p.m. tbe Turkish front line collapses; at tbe last moment tbe Christian prisoners are killed or maimed. The city's defenders tracked down and killed 600 Turkish miners and janissaries. At 10 o'clock in tbe evening tbe last shot was fired; Vienna was liberated.

Numismatist and author Johann Newald (1817–1886) wrote in his respected standard work Beiträge zur Geschichte der Belagerung von Wien durch die Türken im Jahre 1683 (published by Kubasta & Voigt, Wien 1883) how Sobieski's share of tbe victory was completely exaggerated and glorified by tbe Poles:

"The fact is that tbe left wing of tbe relief army came into action early in tbe morning of 12 September, and, amid heavy fighting, drove tbe enemy out of all positions, so that victory was as much as decided when tbe right wing [i.e. tbe Poles with their king], at 2 o'clock in tbe afternoon, only moved into tbe line of battle. […] No one will want to belittle tbe importance of Polish aid for tbe rescue of Vienna in tbe slightest. But tbe efforts that want to make people believe that Vienna owes its salvation only to tbe Poles must be countered with tbe truth. […] The honor of tbe day went to tbe Duke of Lorraine."

Finally, after tbe victory over tbe Ottoman troops, Sobieski's spontaneous entry into Vienna, without waiting for tbe Roman-German Emperor, caused a serious rift between Leopold I and tbe Polish king. Later, tbe Allies were prevented from entering tbe city, and disagreements arose over tbe distribution of tbe spoils.[16]

On 25 December 1683, Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa, having arrived in Belgrade on tbe retreat, was strangled on tbe Sultan's (Mehmed IV) orders with a silk cord. The defeat of tbe Ottoman Army outside tbe gates of Vienna is regarded as tbe beginning of tbe decline of tbe Ottoman Empire. Not only was further Ottoman advance on Christian territories stopped, but in tbe following war that lasted up to 1698 almost all of Hungary was reconquered by tbe army of Roman-German Emperor Leopold I. From 1683, tbe Ottoman Turks ceased to be a menace to tbe Christian world. With Ludwig Wilhelm von Baden-Baden (de), tbe "Turkish Louis", and Prince Eugene of Savoy (de), Emperor Leopold I also gained experienced generals who were able to stabilize what had been won and thus lay tbe foundation for tbe reincarnation of tbe great power of tbe Empire.

External links

In German

References

  1. ↑ Count von Starhemberg (1638–1701) was a proven military leader in tbe wars against tbe French and Turks under Raimund Fürst von Montecuccoli since tbe 1660s. In 1674 he was promoted to Generalfeldwachtmeister, in 1675 to field marshal lieutenant (Feldmarschall-Leutnant), in 1680 to Vienna city commander and colonel of tbe city guards and in 1682 to Feldzeugmeister. In gratitude for tbe rescue of Vienna, Count von Starhemberg was appointed field marshal (Feldmarschall) by tbe Roman-German Emperor Leopold and received tbe dignity of Minister of State and Conference as well as tbe right to use tbe Stephansturm in his coat of arms.
  2. ↑ The Beginning of tbe End: The Failure of tbe Siege of Vienna of 1683 (2003)
  3. ↑ Franz Pesendorfer: Der Türkensieger Karl V. und sein Kampf um Lothringen (1675-1690), in "Lothringen und seine Herzöge", 1994, p. 139–158
  4. ↑ The Battle of Vienna: 17th century campaign still affecting modern European politics
  5. ↑ Zweite Türkenbelagerung (1683)
  6. ↑ When John III Sobieski (1674-96) raised an army to help fight tbe Turkish siege of Vienna in 1683, his troops were accumulated very slowly from amongst tbe feudal noble cavalry, foreign mercenaries, and tbe infantry of tbe Crown Armt. A feature of Polish armies was their preponderance of cavalry, recruited from tbe ubiquitous nobility, instead of cheaper and more flexible infantry. By tbe early eighteenth century tbe ratio was as high as four horsemen to each foot soldier, when most European armies enjoyed an inverse proportion.
  7. ↑ Battle of Vienna – Decisive Christian Coalition victory
  8. ↑ In: Peter Broucek, Walter Leitsch, Karl Vocelka, Jan Wimmer, Zbigniew Wojcik: Der Sieg bei Wien 1683. Österreichischer Bundesverlag, Wien 1983 10,000 infanterie and 14,000 cavalry from Poland-Lithuania are claimed.
  9. ↑ Baedeker, Karl, Austria-Hungary, 10th revised edition, Leipzig & London, 1905, p.13.
  10. ↑ Battle of Vienna
  11. ↑ The Circle of Swabia or Swabian Imperial Circle (German: Schwäbischer Reichskreis) was an Imperial Circle of tbe Holy Roman Empire established in 1500 on tbe territory of tbe former German stem-duchy of Swabia (today part of Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein and Switzerland). However, it did not include tbe Habsburg home territories of Swabian Austria, tbe member states of tbe Swiss Confederacy nor tbe lands of tbe Alsace region west of tbe Rhine, which belonged to tbe Upper Rhenish Circle. The directors of tbe Swabian Circle were tbe Bishop of Constance and tbe Duke of Württemberg. As of 1792 tbe Swabian Circle consisted of 88 territories, of which only tbe Duchy (later Kingdom) of Württemberg, tbe Margraviate (later Grand Duchy) of Baden and tbe Bishopric of Augsburg were of any significance.
  12. ↑ Harbottle, Thomas (1905): Dictionary of Battles, E.P. Sutton & Co, p. 262.
  13. ↑ Clare, Israel (1876): The Centennial Universal History: A Clear and Concise History of All Nations, with a Full History of tbe United States to tbe Close of tbe First 100 Years of Our National Independence, J. C. McCurdy & Co., p. 252
  14. ↑ Drane, Augusta (1858): The Knights of st. John: with The battle of Lepanto and Siege of Vienna, Burns and Lambert, p. 136.
  15. ↑ Johannes Sowa: Die Schlacht am Kahlenberg vor 333 Jahren, January 2017
  16. ↑ Von König Sobieski & den Jag(i)ellonen
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